IC-NR 


^  NEW  YORK  3v  CHICAGO 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


EDUC.- 

PSYCH. 

LIBRARY 

GIFT  OF 


Professor 
Edna  Bailey 


PATHFINDER    PHYSIOLOGY    No.     2 


H 


E 


YO 


PLE 


COMMON  SCHOOLS 


Copyright,    1884  and   1885 

A.  s.   BARNES  &  COMPANY 

NEW    YORK    AND    CHICAGO 


PATHFINDER    SERIES 

OF    TEXT    BOOKS    ON 

ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  HYGIENE, 

"With  Special  Reference  to  the  Influence  of  Alcoholic 
Drinks  and  Narcotics  on  the  Human  System. 

I. 
FOR      PRIMARY      GRADES. 

THE  CHILD'S  HEALTH  PRIMER. 

121710,     Cloth. 

An  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  science,  suited  to 
pupils  of  the  ordinary  third  reader  grade. 

Full     of     lively     description     and     embellished     by     many    apt 
illustrations. 

II. 
FOR       INTERMEDIATE       CLASSES. 

HYGIENE  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE. 

izrno.   Cloth.    Beautifully  illustrated. 

Suited  to  pupils  able  to  read  any  fourth  reader. 
An     admirable     elementary     treatise     upon     the     subject. 

The   principles   of  the  science  more  fully  announced 
and  illustrated. 

in. 

FOR      HIGH      SCHOOLS      AND      ACADEMIES. 

HYGIENIC    PHYSIOLOGY. 

i2mo.     Beautifully  illustrated. 
A     MORE      ELABORATE      TREATISE. 

Prepared  for  the  instruction  of  youth  in  the  principles  which 

underlie   the   preservation   of  health   and  the 

formation  of  correct  physical  habits. 

EDUC.- 
PSYCH. 
LIBRARY 


*  AN  ACT  RELATING  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  IN 
THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

"  The  Teople  of  the  State  of  New  York,  represented  in 
Senate  and  Assembly,  do  enact  as  follows  : 

"SECTION  1.  Provision  shall  be  made  by  the  proper  local  school 
authorities  for  instructing  all  pupils  in  all  schools  supported  by 
public  money,  or  under  State  control,  in  physiology  and  hygiene, 
with  special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants, 
and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system." 


Thus  read,  with,  slight  modifications,  the  laws  o? 
four  other  states,  viz.,  Vermont,  Michigan,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  Rhode  Island. 

This  book  has  been  prepared  to  meet  the  demands 
of  these  states  for  intermediate  'grades  of  schools. 
Since  the  laws  say  that  Physiology  and  Hygiene,  with 
special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks, 
etc.,  shall  be  studied  by  all  pupils  in  the  public  schools, 
such  of  the  obvious  facts  of  Physiology  as  would 
render  the  Hygiene  intelligible  have  been  included. 

230 


4  PREFACE. 

Enough  on  the  subject  of  Hygiene  has  "been  intro- 
duced to  give  a  general  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
health;  while,  as  the  spirit  and  the  letter  of  the  laws 
direct,  especial  reference  has  been  made  to  the  effects 
of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics. 

Eminent  physicians  and  teachers  have  contributed 
helpful  suggestions  in  the  preparation  of  this  work. 
Among  the  former  are  Prof.  Palmer,  M.  D.,  LL.  D., 
Dean  of  the  Medical  Department  of  Michigan  Uni- 
versity;  Dr.  Ezra  M.  Hunt,  A.M.,  M.  D.,  President  of 
the  section  of  the  American  Medical  Association  on 
State  Medicine  and  Public  Hygiene,  Vice-President 
of  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  etc.,  and 
author  of  "Alcohol  as  a  Food  and  Medicine." 

Of  the  teachers  who  have  helped  in  shaping  these 
truths  into  a  suitable  form  for  young  minds,  first 
mention  should  be  made  of  Miss  Alice  M.  G-uernsey, 
High  School,  Wareham,  Mass. 

The  aid  of  Dr.  Mary  V.  Lee,  of  the  Oswego,  N".  Y., 
formal  School;  Prof.  Jones,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, Erie,  Penn.;  D.  B.  Hagar,  Ph.D.,  Principal  of  the 
State  formal  School,  Salem,  Mass. ;  Mr.  E.  P.  Church, 
Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  Green ville,  Mich.,  and 
other  practical  instructors;  is  also  gratefully  recog- 
nized by  the  editor. 


INTRODUCTION. 

I  have  examined  the  manuscript  of  this  book,  and 
find  it  covering  more  matter  that  I  think  should  he 
taught  in  the  elementary  lessons  on  life  and  health 
in  the  schools,  than  I  have  found  in  the  other  works, 
with  similar  objects,  which  I  have  had  occasion  to 
examine. 

It  is  free  from  the  errors  which  have  been  noticed 
and  objected  to  in  several  other  works  on  this  subject 
designed  for  school  use. 

I  also  think  it  free  from  such  overstatements  as 
are  likely  to  be  produced  by  ardent  zeal. 

If  all  the  facts  contained  in  this  little  work  are 
firmly  lodged  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  in  our  pub- 
lic schools  throughout  the  country,  an  immense  work 
for  good  will  be  accomplished. 

Being  profoundly  impressed  with  the  enormous 
evils  to  our  race  produced  by  the  habitual  use  of 
narcotics,  including  alcohol,  opium,  and  tobacco,  I 
can  but  rejoice  at  the  promising  efforts  to  make  ob- 
ligatory in  the  public  schools  the  teaching  of  Physi- 
ology and  Hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  these 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

narcotics,  and  I  know  of  no  work  which  is  a  "better 
introduction  to  the  subject  than  the  present  text- 
book. 

Of  the  diseases,  the  degeneracy,  the  vices,  and  the 
general  ill-being  produced  by  the  alcohol  habit,  al] 
observers  must  be  aware. 

The  evils  of  the  opium  habit  are  scarcely  less,  in 
proportion  to  its  more  limited  extent,  and  the  habit 
is,  if  possible,  even  less  likely  to  be  broken  up  when 
once  established. 

The  tobacco  habit,  though  less  disastrous  to  indi- 
viduals and  in  its  moral  and  social  effects  upon 
communities,  still,  by  its  greater  prevalence,  is  doing 
an  amount  of  mischief,  especially  with  boys,  which 
none  so  fully  know  as  those  physicians  who  have 
given  special  attention  to  the  subject. 

The  influence  which  indulgence  in  one  narcotic 
has  upon  the  resort  to  others,  should  be  more  fully 
recognized,  and  the  great  importance  of  abstinence 
from  all  of  them  will,  by  these  teachings,  it  is  hoped, 
be  more  fully  understood  and  appreciated. 

It  therefore  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  say  this 
much,  and  in  this  place,  in  favor  of  the  objects  and 
the  execution  of  this  work,  and  in  commendation 
of  the  efforts  of  those  who  have  had  the  labor  of  its 
preparation. 

A.  B.  PALMER. 

ANN  ARBOR,  Sept.  1,  1884. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAOB 

INTRODUCTION 5 

FIRST  WORDS 8 

I. — ALCOHOL 9 

II. — FERMENTATION 15 

III. — DISTILLATION 25 

IV.— TOBACCO 31 

V.— OPIUM 37 

VI— BONES 41 

VII. — MUSCLES 57 

VIIL— FOOD 65 

IX. — ARE  NARCOTICS  FOODS? 77 

X. — DIGESTION 87 

XL — RESPIRATION 109 

XII. — CIRCULATION 125 

XIIL— THE  SKIN 141 

XIV.— ANIMAL  HEAT 149 

XV. — ALCOHOL  AND  LIFE 157 

XVI. —THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 165 

X VII.— SPECIAL  SENSES 193 

INDEX  .  203 


FIRST     WORDS. 


thyself,"  is  old  and  good  advice. 
As  tlie  body  is  an  important  part  of 
a  person,  we  are  only  obeying  this  counsel 
when  we  learn  how  it  is  built,  how  it  lives, 
and  what  is  good  or  bad  for  its  health. 

Because  many  people  are  ignorant  of  the 
true  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  poi- 
sons, the  law  in  some  parts  of  our  country 
requires  the  pupils  in  the  public  schools  to 
study  the  human  body  and  the  effects  of 
these  drugs  upon  it. 

From  these  lessons  you  will  learn,  first, 
what  these  drugs  are.  That  you  may  under- 
stand what  they  will  do  to  those  who  use 
them,  you  must  then  learn  about  the  human 
body  and  how  to  take  care  of  it. 

When  you  see  what  alcohol,  tobacco,  and 
opium,  do  to  its  many  wonderful  parts,  and 
what  trouble  and  sorrow  they  cause,  you  will 
know  why  it  is  dangerous  to  use  them. 


CHAPTER     I. 

ALCOHOL. 

LCOHOL  is  a  colorless  liquid  with,  a 
stinging  taste;  it  burns  without  soot, 
giving  little  light,  hut  great  heat.  It  is 
lighter  than  water,  and  can  not  he  frozen. 

It  is  used  to  dissolve  gums,  resins,  and 
oils;  to  make  smokeless  flames;  to  take  from 
leaves,  roots,  harks,  and  seeds,  materials  for 
making  perfumes  and  medicines;  and  to  keep 
dead  "bodies  from  decaying. 

People  do  not  usually  drink  clear  alcohol 
(ai'-eo  h6i).  Rum,  whiskey,  wine,  cider,  gin, 
hrandy,  heer,  etc.,  are  water  and  alcohol  with 
different  flavors.  Many  million  gallons  of 
alcohol  in  these  liquors  are  drunk  every  year 
hy  the  people  of  this  country. 

ORIGIN     OF     ALCOHOL. 

Water  forms  the  larger  part  of  grape, 
apple,  and  other  fruit  and  plant  juices.  Green 
fruits  contain  much  starch;  as  they  ripen 


10  ALCOHOL. 

and  become  fit  for  food,  this  starch  turns 
to  sugar.  Our  sweet-tasting  fruits  and  plants 
have  sugar  in  their  juices ;  and  from  such 
juices,  boiled  down,  we  get  the  sugar  used 
for  food. 

If  this  fruit  or  plant  juice  is  drawn  off 
from  its  pulp,  and  then  exposed  to  the  open 
air  at  summer  heat,  the  sweet  part  changes:, 
it  is  no  longer  sugar,  because  it  has  separated 
into  a  liquid  called  alcohol  and  a  gas  named 
carbon'ic  ac'icl.*  Much  of  this  gas  goes  off 
into  the  air ;  the  alcohol  remains  in  the 
liquid,  changing  a  wholesome  food  into  a 
dangerous  drink. 

ALCOHOL    A    POISON. f 

A  poison  is  any  substance  whose  nature 
it  is,  when  taken  into  the  body,  either  in 
small  or  large  quantities,  to  injure  health  or 
destroy  life. 

*  A  better,  tout  less  common  name  for  this  gas  is  carbonic 
dioxide. 

t  Dr.  A.  B.  Palmer,  of  Michigan  University,  says:  "Medical 
writers  admit  that  by  far  the  most  disastrous  and  frequent  cause 
of  poisoning  in  all  our  communities,  is  the  use  of  alcohol." 

Dr.  W.  J.  Youmans  writes:  "Alcohol a  brain 

poison." 


WHAT    IS    A    NARCOTIC?  H 

Proper  food  is  wrought  into  our  bodies; 
but  poisons*  are  thrown  out  of  them,  if  pos- 
sible, because  iinnt  to  be  used  in  making 
any  of  their  parts. 

In  large  doses,  in  its  pure  state,  or  -when 
diluted,  as  in  brandy,  whiskey,  rum,  or  gin, 
alcohol  is  often  fatal  to  life.  Deaths  of  men, 
women,  and  children  from  poisonous  doses  of 
this  drug,  are  common. 

In  smaller  quantities,  or  in  the  lighter 
liquors — beer,  wine,  and  cider — when  used  as 
a  beverage,  it  injures  the  health  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  taken. 

WHAT     IS     A     NARCOTIC? 

Any  siibstance  that  deadens  the  brain  and 
nerves  is  called  a  narcotic;  for  example,  ether 
(e'ther)  and  chloroform  (-e^io'ro  form),  which  are 
given  by  the  dentist,  that  he  may  extract 

Dr.  Alden,  of  Massachusetts,  tells  us:  "On  every  organ  they 
touch,  alcoholic  drinks  act  as  a  poison.  There  is  no  such  thing 
as  their  temperate  use.  They  are  always  an*  enemy  to  the  human 
body.  They  produce  weakness,  not  strength ;  sickness,  not  health ; 
death,  not  life." 

*  Intoxicated  means  poisoned.  The  barbarians  poisoned  their  ar- 
rows;  hence,  from  the  Latin  in,  into  —  and  toxicum,  a  poison  into 
which  arrows  were  dipped,  -we  get  the  word  which  describes  the 
condition  of  a  person  under  the  influence  of  alcohol. 


12  ALCOHOL. 

teeth    without    pain.       Alcohol    is    taken    for 
similar  purposes,   and  is  a  powerful   narcotic. 

ALCOHOL     AND     WATER. 

Into  a  "bottle  half  full  of  -water,  pour  alco- 
hol to  the  top ;  then  shake  it  well,  "being  very 
careful  not  to  spill  any  of  the  liquid.  Now, 
the  "bottle  is  not  full.  The  alcohol  has  mixed 
with  the  water,  and  it  does  this  wherever  it 
has  a  chance. 

Oil  and  water  will  not  unite;  alcohol  and 
water  will  always  unite. 

In  our  study  of  the  human  body,  which 
is  seven  parts  out  of  eight,  water,*  -we  shall 
see  how  alcohol,  beginning-  at  the  lips,  unites 
with  the  water  in  every  part  of  the  drinker's 
body  which  it  reaches,  thus  robbing  it  of  the 
needed  liquid. 


*  I  took  one  of  those  remains  of  the  human  body  which  have 
been  preserved  some  thousands  of  years,  and  which  is  called  an 
Egyptian  mummy. 

It  was  probably  the  body  of  one  who  had  been  a  great  priest 
or  ruler;  for  it  had  been  embalmed  or  preserved  in  the  most  ex- 
pensive form  of  embalming  and  had  been  inclosed  in  a  tomb 
which  must  have  cost  a  small  fortune. 

I  measured  the  mummy,— its  length,  its  girth,  and  the  relative 
size  of  its  head  and  limbs  and  trunk.  From  these  measurements 
I  was  able  to  estimate  what  would  have  been  the  weight  of  the 


ALCOHOLIC    APPETITE.  13 

ALCOHOLIC     APPETITE. 

Like  all  narcotic  poisons,  alcohol  has  the 
fatal  power  of  creating  an  increasing  appe- 
tite for  itself,  that  demands  not  only  more 
frequent,  "but  stronger  and  larger  doses.  The 
greater  its  work  of  ruin,  the  harder  and 
more  nearly  impossible  to  overcome,  will  he 
its  demand. 

The  appetite  does  not  gain  with  equal  ra- 
pidity upon  all ;  hut  no  one  can  tell  how 


body  when  its  owner  was  moving  on  the  earth  in  the  midst  of 
life  and  health.  The  weight  of  the  body  at  that  time,  I  reckoned, 
would  have  been  128  pounds. 

In  the  condition  of  a  mummy,  in  which  it  was  now  before  me, 
nothing  remained  but  the  dried  skeleton  or  bony  framework,  and 
the  muscles  and  other  organs  completely  dried.  The  bods ,  in  fact, 
had,  in  the  course  of  ages,  lost  all  its  water. 

In  this  state  it  weighed  just  sixteen  pounds,  and,  as  eight  times 
sixteen  are  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight,  it  is  clear  that  seven 
parts  out  of  eight  of  the  whole  body,  or  one  hundred  and  twelve 
pounds,  had  passed  away  as  water.  In  the  remaining  weight  was 
included  that  of  the  skeleton,  which  contains  but  ten  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  some  mere  remnants  of  canvas  and  pitchy  substances, 
which  had  been  used  by  the  embalmers,  and  which,  like  the  skele- 
ton, still  continued  perfect. 

The  soft  parts  of  this  human  body,  by  which  all  its  active  life, 
its  moving  and  thinking  functions,  had  been  carried  on,  were,  in 
fact,  nearly  all  removed  by  the  drying  process,  or  loss  of  water,  to 
which  they  had  been  subjected.  They  had  not  been  destroyed  by 
passing  into  new  forms  of  matter,  as  occurs  when  a  dead  substance 
is  allowed  to  decay  in  the  open  air  ;  but  they  had  completely  lost 
the  water  which  once  gave  them  size,  flexibility,  shape,  and  capac- 
ity for  motion. 

Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson,  of  London. 


14  ALCOHOL. 

Long  he  will  be  satisfied  with,  a  little.  This 
craving,  so  easily  formed,  and  so  hard  to 
overcome,  clings  to  its  victims.  Sometimes 
after  slumbering  through  years  of  abstinence 
(ab'sti  n£n9^),  it  is  wakened  by  the  first  taste. 

The  custom  of  putting  wine  and  other 
alcoholic  liquors  into  cooked  foods,  is  a  dan- 
gerous one,  often  causing  the  formation  or 
return  of  a  fearful  appetite. 

In  this  country,  over  60,000  persons  every 
year  die  as  drunkards  — that  is,  are  killed  by 
alcohol.  None  of  them  expected  to  become 
drunkards  when  they  began  to  drink  liquor; 
but  they  were  ignorant,  or  careless,  of  the 
power  of  a  little  alcohol  to  create  an  appe- 
tite for  more. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  alcohol  ?  — Name  some  of  its  qualities. 

2.  "What  are  the  uses  of  alcohol? 

3.  From  what  is  alcohol  made  ? 

4.  How  can  you  prove  that  alcohol  is  a  poison  ? 

5.  How  many  persons  every  year  die  as  drunkards? 

6.  Under  what  names  is  alcohol  drunk? 

7.  "What  is  the  difference  between  a  food  and  a  poison? 

8.  Describe  Dr.   Richardson's  experiment  with  the  mummy. 

9.  What    is   the   effect    of  alcohol  upon  the  water  in  the  human 

body? 
10.    Why  does  the  drinker  of  alcohol  fail  to  realize  his  danger? 


O  H  APTE  R      II. 

FERMENTATION. 

WHAT  is  fermen  ta'tion  ?  When  moist 
animal  or  vegetable  matters  are  ex- 
posed to  warm  air,  certain  changes  which 
take  place  alter  their  nature;  these  changes 
are  produced  "by  a  process  called  fermentation. 

When  sugar  is  turning  to  alcohol  and 
carhon'ic  ac'id,  the  latter  escapes  in  littlo 
bubbles,  giving  the  entire  liquid  the  appear- 
ance of  boiling.  We  call  this  process,  and 
others  much  like  it,  fermentation,  from  a 
Latin  word  which  means  to  boil. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  fermentation. 
In  these  lessons  we  'shall  learn  about  only 
two  of  them. 

I.  Vi'nous  Fermentation  —  the    change  of    sugar 
to  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid. 

II.  A  ce'tous  Fermentation  —  the  change  of  alco- 

hoi  and  other  substances  to  vinegar. 


16  FERMENTATION. 

VINOUS     FERMENTATION. 
BACTERIA     AND     YEAST. 

If  you  sliould  look  at  a  drop  of  stagnant 
water  under  a  strong  mi'  cro  scope,  you  would 
be  quite  likely  to  find  it  full  of  small  living 
things,  so  tiny  that  you  could  not  see  them 
at  all  with  the  naked  eye ;  these  mi  nute' 
animal  and  vegetable  forms  are  alive,  and 
often  in  rapid  motion. 

In  the  air,  also,  are  many  living  forms, 
too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  called 
bacteria  (b&e  ts' rf  &). 

There  are  particles  coming  from  them 
much  smaller  than  the  full-grown  bacteria, 
which  will  become  bacteria  by  growth.  These 
are  called  spores,  and  are  floating  almost 
every-where  in  the  air,  and,  from  their  ex- 
treme smallness,  can  get  into  places  where 
the  bacteria  might  not  be  able  to  come. 

They  have  been  carefully  studied  with 
the  help  of  the  microscope,  and  we  know 
that,  instead  of  the  air,  it  is  these  bacteria 
or  their  spores  in  the  air,  which  produce 
fermentation  in  certain  liquids. 


BACTERIA    AND    YEAST.  IT 

.Che  juices  of  the  grape,  apple,  and  many 
other  fruits,  will,  if  placed  under  the  right 
conditions,  ferment  "by  the  action  of  these 
living  forms. 

In  order  to  ferment  some  other  liquids 
and  thus  obtain  intoxicating  drinks,  yeast  * 
must  be  added.  In  this  way  some  people 
"brew  home-made  beer— by  steeping  various 
roots,  barks,  and  herbs  in  water,  and  adding 
yeast  and  sugar  enough  to  cause  fermenta- 
tion. The  alcohol  that  is  formed  by  the 
change  of  the  sugar,  makes  the  beer  a  dan- 
gerous drink. 

When  a  liquid  is  fermenting,  the  little 
bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  carry  a  froth  to  the 
top,  which  can  be  used  as  yeast  to  act  on 
other  liquids.  At  the  bottom  lie  the  "set- 
tlings," a  half-solid  mass,  sometimes  called 
the  lees.  Between  the  froth  and  the  lees  is  a 
thin,  intoxicating  liquid,  which  people  drink 
under  different  names,  as,  wine",  cider,  beer,  etc. 

Dry  sugar  will  not  ferment,  nor  will  al- 
cohol be  formed  in  liquids  which  have  an. 

*  Yeast  is  really  a  plant,  and  it  is  the  growth  of  the  yeast  plant 
which  causes  fermentation  in  these  liquids. 


18  FERMENTATION. 

excess  of  sugar.  The  united  action  of  sugar, 
water,  heat,  and  of  the  bacteria  or  spores 
in  the  air,  or  of  yeast  — each  in  the  right 
proportion  —  are  always  required  to  produce 
alcohol. 

ALCOHOL     FROM     GRAINS. 

Starch  forms  a  large  part  of  rye,  corn, 
"barley,  and  other  grains.  If  these  are  kept 
moist  and  warm  —  as  -when  planted  in  the 
earth  in  spring  or  summer, — their  starch 
turns  to  sugar,  when  the  grain,  which  is 
a  seed,  begins  to  grow.  Chew  a  grain  of 
sproirted  corn  or  "barley,  and  you  will  find 
it  sweet. 

Barley  is  kept  moist  with  water  until  it 
sprouts,  or  throws  out  little  roots.  During 
this  process,  most  of  the  starch  that  is  in 
the  "barley,  changes  to  sugar.  Heat  is  then 
applied,  strong  enough  to  dry  out  all  the 
moisture  of  the  "barley  and  kill  the  young 
roots. 

Grain  thus  treated  is  called  malt,  and 
from  this  malt,  pale  ales  and  beers  are 
made. 


ALCOHOL    AND    BREAD.  19 

Heating  to  a  higher  temperature,  so  as 
slightly  to  burn  the  sprouted  grain,  makes 
dark  malt,  from  which  porter  and  stout  — 
dark  colored  drinks — are  manufactured. 

If  the  sugar  thus  formed  in  barley  is  dis- 
solved out  of  the  grain  with  water,  and  yeast 
is  added,  and  the  -whole  exposed  to  warm  air, 
another  change  takes  place, — the  sugar  which 
was  once  starch,  becomes  alcohol,  and  car- 
bonic acid.  By  this  process,  a  good  food  has 
been  changed  to  a  poison;  for  the  barley  has 
become  an  intoxicating  drink — ale,  beer,  or 
porter. 

ALCOHOL     AND     BREAD. 

We  must  not  conclude  that  fermentation 
is  never  a  good  thing.  If  it  is  stopped  at 
just  the  right  point,  and  the  alcohol  all 
driven  off  by  heat,  it  improves  some  kinds 
of  food. 

Crushed  grain,  or  flour,  is  a  valuable  food; 
but,    in    this    form,    is    not    pleasant    to    eat. 
Yeast  added  to  warm,  moistened  flour  causes 
fermentation.    A  little  sugar  in  the  flour  itself 
(called   free    sugar)  will   turn   to   alcohol    and 


20  FERMENTATION. 

carbonic  acid  gas.  This  gas,  in  a  thin  liquid, 
'would  pass  off  into  the  air.  But  it  is  im- 
prisoned by  the  sticky  dough,  and  puffs  it 
up  with  little  cells  in  its  effort  to  escape, 
thus  making  the  otherwise  solid  mass,  light 
and  spongy. 

The  small  quantity  of  alcohol  which  was 
formed,  largely  evaporates,  and  the  gas  escapes 
when  the  dough  is  placed  in  the  strong  heat 
of  the  oven ;  a  light,  sweet  loaf  of  bread  is 
left,  that  is  better  food  than  the  flour. 

Alcohol  turns  to  vapor  with  less  heat  than 
'water.  In  bread  baked  enough  to  be  food 
fit  for  the  human  stomach,  the  alcohol  has 
been  turned  to  vapor  by  the  heat  of  the 
oven,  and  has  passed  off  into  the  air. 

People  who  are  ignorant  of  the  truths  you 
are  learning  in  these  lessons,  have  supposed 
that  because  fermented  dough  makes  good 
bread  to  eat,  therefore  fermented  barley-juice 
must  make  good  beer  to  drink.  But  you 
know  the  alcohol  stays  in  the  beer  and  not 
in  the  bread,  and  that  simple  fact  makes  the 
difference,  in  this  case,  between  a  food  and 
a  poison. 


ALCOHOL    IN    FERMENTED    LIQUORS.  21 


AMOUNT    OF    ALCOHOL    IN    FERMENTED    LIQUORS. 

In  one  hundred  parts  of  the  fermented 
juice  of  apples,  or  cider,  there  are  from  two 
to  ten  parts  of  alcohol.  In  one  hundred  parts 
of  "beer  — the  fermented  juice  of  harley— there 
are  from  three  to  ten  parts  of  alcohol. 

In  one  hundred  parts  of  the  fermented 
juice  of  grapes  and  other  kinds  of  fruit,  or 
wines,  there  are  from  twelve  to  thirty-seven 
parts  of  alcohol  (or  six  to  seventeen,  "by  weight). 

It  is  estimated  (in  1880)  that  twenty-two 
and  three-quarter  million  gallons  of  alcohol 
are  consumed  every  year  by  the  people  of 
this  country,  in  beer  alone. 

This  makes  nearly  one-half  gallon  of  pure 
alcohol  used  by  every  man,  woman,  and  child 
of  our  50,000,000— if  all  were  foolish  enough 
to  drink  it. 

As  very  many  people  drink  no  beer  at 
all,  some  of  the  beer-drinkers 'must  get  more 
than  this  one-half  gallon  of  poison  during 
each  year.  Further  study  will  show  you 
the  consequences  of  the  use  of  this  great 
quantity  of  alcohol. 


22  FERMENTATION. 

HEAT    AND     FERMENTED     LIQUORS. 

If  you  were  to  place  fermented  liquors  of 
any  kind  in  an  open  kettle  over  strong  neat, 
their  charm  for  the  wine,  cider,  or  beer-lover, 
would  soon  he  gone.  It  is  for  the  sake  of 
the  alcohol  they  contain,  that  people  are  fond 
of  these  drinks,  and  this  passes  away  in  the 
form  of  vapor  from  the  hoiling  liquid;  the 
liquid  which  is  left,  has  an  insipid  taste,  and 
no  one  would  care  to  drink  it. 

ALCOHOL     IN    NATURE. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  "because 
grapes,  apples,  and  harley,  are  healthful  foods, 
that  wine,  cider,  and  "beer,  made  from  them, 
must  also  he  healthful. 

It  is  important  to  rememher  that  fermen- 
tation entirely  changes  the  character  of  the 
suhstance  it  works  upon.  Nature  rots  her 
various  plant  forms;  hut  while  the  juice  re- 
mains protected  from  the  air  hy  the  skin  or 
husk  of  the  unbroken  grain,  plant,  or  fruit, 
its  sugar  will  not  ferment  — therefore,  alcohol 
is  never  found  in  them. 


ALCOHOL    AND     VINEGAR.  23 

ACETOUS     FERMENTATION. 
ALCOHOL     AND    VINEGAR. 

All  vegetable  substances  come  from  earth, 
air,  and  water,  and  return  to  them  again. 

Through  the  process  of  fermentation,  vege- 
table liquids  go  back  to  earth,  air,  and  water. 
After  the  alcohol  is  formed,  if  it  remains  in 
the  vegetable  juice,  exposed  to  moderately 
warm  air,  the  second  kind,  or  acetous  fer- 
mentation, takes  place,  changing  the  alcohol 
to  a  sharp  acid,  called  acetic  acid  and  com- 
monly known  as  vinegar. 

When  the  cook  has  not  baked  the  bread  at 
just  the  right  time — that  is,  has  not  stopped 
the  fermentation  before  acid  began  to  form 
in  the  dough,  we  say  "the  bread  is  sour". 
This  acid  does  not  pass  off  in  the  heat  of  the 
oven  as  alcohol  does,  but  remaining  gives  a 
sour  taste  to  the  bread. 

Acetic  acid  is  as  different  from  alcohol,  as 
alcohol  is  from  sugar.  It  is  used  for  food. 
Vinegar  is  made  in  this  "way  from  hard  cider 
and  other  fermented  liquors,  and  will  change, 


24  FERMENTATION. 

in  its  turn,  if  left  in  the  same  conditions  that 
produced  it,  and  lose  its  acid  taste ;  its  water 
all  evaporating,  nothing  -will  remain  hut  a 
hrown  powder. 

The  earth,  air,  and  water  have  claimed 
again  the  matter  only  loaned  to  make  the 
fruit,  plant,  or  grain. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  fermentation  ? 

2.  Why  do  fermenting  liquids  appear  to  be  boiling? 

3.  What  kinds  of  fermentation  shall  -we  consider  ? 

4.  If  you   look   through    a   strong   microscope  at    stagnant   water, 

what  would  you  see? 

5.  What  are  bacteria? 

6.  What  are  spores?    and  where  found? 

7.  What  produces  fermentation  in  fruit  juices  ? 

8.  How  are  some  other  liquids  made  into  intoxicating  drinks? 

9.  Why  are  home-made  beers  dangerous  drinks? 

10.  What  causes  froth  at  the  top  of  a  fermenting  liquor?   and  how 

is  it  used? 

11.  What  is  there  between  the  froth  and  the  lees? 

12.  What  is  necessary  to  produce  alcohol? 

13.  What  forms  the  chief  part  of  grain? 

14.  How  is  this  starch  changed?     Prove  this. 

15.  How  is  the  starch  in  barley  turned  to  sugar? 

16.  What  is  malt  ?    and  what  is  made  from  it  ? 

17.  How  does  alcohol  get  into  the  beer  ? 

18.  How  can  fermentation  be  made  to  improve  some  foods? 

19.  What    takes   place   when   yeast    is   added    to    warm,    moistened 

flour? 

20.  What  makes  bread  light  and  spongy? 

21.  What  becomes    of   this   alcohol   and  carbonic    acid    gas    in    the 

dough?    In  beer,  wine,  and   cider  v     (See  other  questions  on 
p.   36.) 


CHAPTER      III. 

DISTILLATION. 

WHEN  a  liquid  is  changed  to  a  vapor  by 
neat,  and  that  vapor  is  turned  again 
to  a  liquid  by  cold,  the  process  is  called  dis- 
tillation (dls  til  Ift'tion). 

Cold  surfaces  condense  tne  moisture  in 
tne  night  air,  and  we  say:  "The  dew  is  fall- 
ing." By  the  heat  of  the  sun,  these  drops  of 
-water  are  turned  again  to  vapor  that  rises 
and  spreads  itsalf  in  the  air ;  this  is  again 
changed  to  water  toy  cold,  and  falls  in  the 
form  of  dew  or  rain.  Thus,  with  her  own 
heat  and  cold,  "Nature  is  ever  distilling." 

Unless  sugar  is  dissolved  in  water,  it  will 
not  turn  to  alcohol ;  therefore,  when  first 
formed,  alcohol  is  always  mixed  with  water. 

Alcohol  and  water  could  not  "be  separated, 
until  men,  in  imitation  of  nature,  learned  to 
distill. 

Every  child  who   has  watched  the  steam 


26  DISTILLATION. 

puffing  from  a  tea-kettle,  knows  that  heat 
will  turn  a  liquid  to  vapor.  Some  liquids 
require  less  heat  than  others  for  this  change. 
When  two  such  liquids  are  mixed,  one  can 
ho  made  to  pass  off  in  vapor,  leaving  the 
other.  Thus  alcohol  and  water  may  be  sepa- 
ra  ted. 

Put  a  fermented  liquor  into  a  kettle  over 
the  fire,  with  a  pipe  in  its  closely-fitting 
spout  to  carry  off  the  steam.  Nearly  all  the 
alcohol  will  pass  off  in  vapor  before  the  water 
comes  to  the  boiling  point. 

If  this  pipe  is  of  the  right  length  and 
is  cooled  by  ice  or  cold  water,  the  vapor, 
while  passing  through  it,  will  turn  to  a  liquid 
and  drip  from  the  end  of  the  pipe.  If  you 
apply  a  lighted  match  to  this  new  liquid,  it 
will  burn  with  a  pale  blue  flame,  giving  out 
intense  heat. 

It  is  mainly  alcohol  which  has  been  sepa- 
rated— distilled — from  the  fermented  mixture. 
What  remains  in  the  kettle  is  principally 
water.  The  alcohol  is  unchanged  in  its  na- 
ture; but  is  stronger,  because  not  so  much 
diluted  with  water. 


DISTILLATION, 


27 


Fio.  2. 


Experiment—  You  may  easily  make  this  experiment 
for  yourselves. 

Put  some  hard  cider  into  a  teapot  (£),  and  fasten 
a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  (<?)  about  two  feet  long  to 
the  spout. 

Let  the  other  end  of  the  tubing  reach  into  a 
bottle  (d)  standing  in  a  pail  of  cold  water  or  on  a 
block  of  ice  (c). 

Heat  the  cider  by  means  of  th'e  lamp  («),  being 
careful  not  to  make  it  hot  enough  for  the  water  in 
the  cider  to  boil. 

If  the  cider  is  not  very  strong,  you  may  have  to 
re-distill  it  before  you  find  the  alcohol  is  pure 
enough  to  burn. 


28  DISTILLATION. 

DISTILLED     LIQUORS. 

In  the  manner  just  described,  "brandy  is 
distilled  from  wine  or  cider;  rum  from  fer- 
mented molasses;  whiskey  from  fermented 
corn,  barley,  or  potatoes;  gin  from  fermented 
barley,  or  rye,  afterward  distilled  with  juni- 
per berries.  Ordinarily  these  distilled  liquors 
are  about  one-half  pure  alcohol. 

Some  of  the  water  passes  over  with  the 
alcohol,  so  that  these  liquors  are  often  dis- 
tilled a  second,  and  even  a  third  time,  to 
make  them  stronger  of  alcohol. 

The  alcohol  usually  sold  is  distilled  from 
fermented  molasses ;  but  it  can  be  made  from 
any  fermented  liquor.  It  is  so  greedy  for 
water  that  entirely  pure  alcohol  can  be  pro- 
duced only  by  distilling  it  with  some  sub- 
stance such  as  lime,  that  is  still  more  eager 
for  water,  and  will  take  it  from  the  alcohol. 

DRUGGED     LIQUORS. 

"Wine  in  its  many  forms  was  probably  the 
first,  and,  for  many  centuries,  the  only  known 
intoxicating:  drink. 


HOW    ALCOHOL    WAS    DISCOVERED.  29 

Tlie  ancients  supposed  that  each  of  the 
various  fruit  juices  made  a  different  kind  of 
liquor;  but  you  see  all  of  them  are  mainly 
alcohol  and  water.  The  different  taste  of 
each,  if  it  is  really  what  it  claims  to  be,  is 
due  to  its  own  peculiar  fruit,  grain,  or  plant 
flavor. 

Poisonous  drugs  and  coloring  matter  are 
often  added  to  alcohol  and  water  to  imitate 
the  various  liquors.  So  much  of  this  is  done 
that  many  of  the  fermented  and  distilled 
liquors  now  sold  and  used,  contain  other 
poisons  added  to  their  own  ever-present  one 
—  alcohol.  As  this  is  the  most  dangerous  of 
all,  the  idea  that  "unadulterated  whiskey" 
or  the  "pure,  fermented  juice  of  the  grape," 
can  be  '"'good,"  is  a  mistake. 

HOW     ALCOHOL     WAS     DISCOVERED. 

The  people  who  lived  about  700  years  ago, 
thought  that  somewhere,  if  they  could  only 
find  them,  were  two  things  that  would  greatly 
bless  the  world.  First,  something  that  would 
turn  iron  and  all  common  metals  into  gold, 
and  thus  easily  and  greatly  enrich  the  finder; 


30  DISTILLATION. 

second,  an  "  elixir  of  life,"  which  would  pre- 
vent sickness  and  death,  and  keep  those  who 
drank  it  forever  young. 

The  men  who  tried  many  curious  experi- 
ments in  search  of  these  two  wonders,  were 
called  alchemists  (arke  mists).  It  is  supposed 
an  Arab,  named  Alhucasis,  was  thus  led  to 
discover  alcohol  hy  distilling  it  from  wine. 

His  career  of  intoxication  and  violence 
was  short.  He  had  found  not  the  "elixir 
of  life,"  hut  the  "water  of  death." 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  distillation? 

2.  Show  that  "Nature  is  ever  distilling." 

3.  Describe  the  process  of  distillation  of  liquors. 

4.  Why  are  they  distilled? 

5.  What  are  the  principal  distilled  liquors? 

6.  From  what  is  each  made? 

7.  How  is  pure  alcohol   obtained? 

8.  What     two     substances     form     the     greater     part     of    all 

liquors  ? 

9.  How  are  the  different  plant  flavors  imitated? 

10.  Are     "pure     fermented     liquors"     healthful     and     safe? 

Why? 

11.  What  led  to  the  discovery  of  alcohol  ? 

12.  How  did  it  affect  its  discoverer? 


CHAPTER      IV. 

TOBACCO. 
iRpfNTIL  within  a  few  years,  the  Middle  and 

(rAj) 

G3  part  of  trie  Southern  States  have  been 
the  chief  tobacco-raising  regions  of  our  coun- 
try. Now,  however,  the  cultivation  of  tobacco 
has  spread,  until  many  fertile  valleys,  even 
as  far  north  as  Canada,  are  devoted  to  the 
growth  of  "the  weed." 

The  plant  reaches  a  height  of  several  feet, 
and  has  large,  spreading,  pale-green  leaves, 
which  are  dried,  and  then  made  into  cigars 
or  prepared  to  be  smoked  in  pipes,  or  chewed, 
or  used  as  snuff. 

NICOTINE. 

Tobacco,  a  powerful  narcotic,  contains  a 
substance  called  nicotine  (nie'o  tirifcO.  A  single 
drop,  if  put  on  the  tongue  of  a  dog,  will  soon 
kill  the  animal.  An  ordinary  cigar  contains 


32  TOBACCO. 

nicotine  enough,  to  kill  two  men,  if  taken 
pure. 

One  lias  to  learn  to  like  tobacco.  Boys 
•who  try  it,  know  that  at  first  it  gives  them 
headache,  dizziness,  and  sickness  at  the  stom- 
ach. Their  poor  bodies  try  to  tell  them  they 
are  taking  a  poison. 

If  they  keep  on,  the  nicotine  deadens  their 
nerves,  so  they  do  not  feel  these  effects, 
though  they  are  more  or  less  injured  all  the 
time. 

CIGARETTES. 

Many  boys  and  young  men  learn  to  smoke 
by  beginning  with  cig  ar  ettes'.  These  seem 
harmless  because  they  are  so  small;  but  they 
are  one  of  the  worst  possible  preparations  of 
tobacco. 

The  smoke  of  the  paper  wrappings  is  irri- 
tating to  the  lungs,  and  the  cigarettes  send 
more  poisonous  fumes  into  the  delicate  air- 
cells,  than  a  pipe  or  a  cigar  would  do. 

Drinking  men  are  almost  always  smokers 
or  chewers,  and  many  a  drunkard  owes  his 
ruined  life  and  happiness,  to  the  appetite 


TOBACCO     AND     GROWTH.  33 

for   narcotics    formed   "by  tlie    use  of  tobacco, 
and  the  company  into  which  it  led  him. 

Old  cigar-stumps  are  often  picked  up  from 
the  streets  and  smoked  or  made  into  cigar- 
ettes. This  is  "worse  than  disgusting;  for,  in 
this  way,  diseases  may  be  spread,  coming 
from  the  mouths  of  the  first  users.  These 
stumps  are  the  "strongest"  part  of  the  ci- 
gars— that  is,  they  contain  the  most  nicotine, 
which  thus  goes  into  the  cigarettes. 

TOBACCO     AND     GROWTH. 

A  boy  who  uses  tobacco  runs  the  risk  of 
being  dwarfed  in  body,  mind,  and  soul;  —  of 
becoming  a  nervous,  sickly  man,  with  a  weak 
memory  and  a  feeble  heart. 

Physicians  agree  that  many  and  serious 
troubles  result  from  its  use,  even  by  adults; — 
it  is  certain  that  growing  boys  can  never 
indulge  in  it  with  safety. 

An  eminent  physician — Dean  of  one  of  the 
leading  medical  colleges  in  this  country— 
(Dr.  A.  B.  Palmer,  of  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan), says  that  young  men  who  learn  to 
smoke  or  chew  tobacco,  destroy  on  an  aver- 


34  TOBACCO. 

age,  by  so  doing,  one-fifth  of  the  enjoyment 
and  value,  and  at  least  one-tenth  of  the 
length  of  their  lives. 

As  with  other  narcotics,  using  a  little 
makes  one  long  for  more;  the  hoy  who  begins 
with  one  or  two  cigars  a  day,  soon  increases 
the  number. 

Many  men  who  are  now  slaves  to  this  poi- 
son, would  gladly  be  free  from  it;  and  very 
few  tobacco-users  would  advise  their  sons  to 
adopt  the  expensive,  uncleanly,  and  worse 
than  useless  habit. 

COST  OF  TOBACCO  AND  ALCOHOL. 

What  is  the  yearly  expense  of  a  five-cent 
mug  of  beer  for  each  week-day,  and  two  on 
Sundays  ?  How  many  barrels  of  flour  would 
this  money  buy  at  $6.00  a  barrel  ? 

What  is  the  annual  cost  of  the  habit  to 
a  boy  who  spends  five  cents  for  cigarettes 
each  day  of  the  year  ?  If,  instead  of  burning 
it  up,  the  boy,  when  fourteen  years  old,  puts 
the  value  of  the  cigarettes  into  the  Savings- 
Bank  daily,  what  will  it  amount  to  by  the 
time  he  is  twenty-one  ? 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS.  35 

If  a  man  earns  one  dollar  a  clay,  and  spends 
daily  five  cents  for  tobacco  and  five  cents 
for  beer,  what  part  of  his  earnings  is  tlms 
worse  than  wasted  on  these  narcotics  ? 

If  twenty  cents  a  day  be  spent  for  cigar- 
ettes and  beer,  what  amount  will  be  lost  to 
the  user  in  three  months'  time  ? 

What  amount  would  be  saved  in  ten 
years'  time,  if  a  man  who  spends  thirty  cents 
a  day  for  liquor,  should  give  up  the  habit 
entirely  ? 

How  much  will  the  expense  of  " treating" 
be  likely  to  increase  the  amount  one  spends 
for  alcohol  and  tobacco  ? 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  In   what   sections   of   this   country  is    tobacco  raised?     Describe 

the  plant. 

2.  Give  proof  of  the  poisoning  power  of  nicotine. 

3.  What   are  the  usual   effects    when  one  uses  tobacco  for  the  first 

time  ? 

4.  Why  does  the  tobacco-user  not  continue  to*  feel  these  effects? 

5.  Why  are  cigarettes  especially  harmful? 

6.  How  may  the   use   of  tobacco   be   the  means   of  leading  one  to 

drink  liquors  ? 

7.  What  risks  does  a  boy  run  in  using  tobacco? 

8.  How  does  the  appetite  for  tobacco  change    with   the   use   of  the 

drug  ?     Why  ? 

9.  Which  is  the  more  profitable  purchase  — tobacco  or  flour?     Why? 


36  REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 


CHAPTER     II. 

1.  Describe  the  appearance  of  a  fermenting  liquid. 

2.  What   conditions   will    prevent    the   formation   of  alcohol   from 

sugar  ? 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  heat  on  fermented  liquors? 

4.  How  much  alcohol  is  there  in  beer?     In  cider?     In  wine? 

5.  How  much  alcohol  is  drank  in  beer  in  one  year  in  this  country? 

6.  How  much   would  this  make  for  one  person? 

7.  What  effect  has  boiling  on  fermented  drinks? 

8.  How  is  the  character  of  a  substance  affected   by  fermentation  ? 

9.  Describe  acetous  fermentation. 

10.  Why  is  bread  sometimes  sour? 

11.  Contrast  acetous  acid  with  alcohol.     For  what   is    it   used?     To 

what  will  it  turn? 


OH  APTEE      Y. 

OPIUM. 

white  poppy  is  a  plant  which  is 
largely  cultivated  in  India  and  China. 
If  little  slits  are  cut  in  the  unripe  seed- 
vessels,  drops  of  milky  juice  come  out.  When 
dry,  these  are  carefully  scraped  off  and  sold 
as  opium  (o'pl  ttm). 

From  this  opium,  are  made  laudanum 
(lay  da  nttm),  morphine  (mor'phin^),  paregoric 
(p&r  e  g6r'i-e),  and  the  various  kinds  of  soothing- 
syrups.  It  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  of  the 
narcotic  poisons. 

EFFECTS. 

Usually,  these  various  forms  of  opium  are 
taken  at  first  by  the  advice  of  the  doctor,  to 
relieve  pain.  But  the  appetite,  like  that  for 
alcohol  and  tobacco,  grows  stronger,  and  the 
dose  is  made  larger,  as  the  habit  gains  upon 
its  victim. 

Opium  does  not   make   one   violent,  so   as 


38  OPIUM. 

to  'injure  and  murder  others,  as  alcohol  often 
does;  but  its  effects  on  the  users  themselves 
are,  if  possible,  even  worse  than  those  of 
alcohol. 

At  first,  the  user  seems  to  be  in  a  pleas- 
ant and  wonderful  dream ;  then  he  grows 
stupid  and  unconscious.  When  he  comes  to 
his  senses  again,  there  is  a  feeling  of  horror; 
to  free  himself  from  this,  he  longs  for  more 
of  the  drug,  and  will  get  it  if  possible.  He 
seems  to  lose  all  power  of  self-control,  and 
breaks  the  most  solemn  promises,  if,  by  doing 
so,  he  can  obtain  the  poison. 

Many  lives  that  might  have  been  grand 
and  noble,  have  been  destroyed  by  opium. 
Druggists  often  have  regular  opium-custom- 
ers: of  these,  there  are  many  more  women 
than  men,  because  women  are  more  subject 
to  nervous  diseases,  and  hence  are  more  likely 
to  learn  to  use  this  drug. 

Those  who  have  the  care  of  children,  fre- 
quently quiet  them  by  the-  use  of  soothing- 
syrup.  It  stops  the  baby's  cry,  of  course ;  but 
it  does  it  by  deadening  the  nerves  and  poi- 
soning the  tender  child-life,  often  leaving 


THE    NARCOTIC    HABIT.  39 

injuries    from   which   it    never  recovers.      An 
overdose  at  once  kills  trie  little  one. 

Gin  and  other  liquors  are  sometimes  used 
for  the  same  purpose.  Because  this  practice 
injures  the  health  and  often  creates  a  craving 
for  alcohol,  it  is  a  cruel  betrayal  of  trust  on 
the  part  of  those  charged  with  the  care  of 
helpless  infants. 

THE     NARCOTIC     HABIT. 

Chloral  (kio'rai)  and  chloroform  (kis'ro  form) 
are  often  used  in  sickness ;  "but,  like  opium, 
are  narcotics,  and  therefore  dangerous  helps. 
They  should  never  he  used  in  health,  or 
on  trivial  occasions,  or  for  any  length  of 
time. 

One  narcotic  is  very  likely  to  lead  to  an- 
other. A  gentleman  once  tried  to  break  off 
the  habit  of  smoking,  by  drinking  wine  in- 
stead. He  found  the  wine  was  enslaving 
him;  he  tried  morphine,  and  soon  became  its 
victim.  At  last,  with  a  body  sadly  wrecked, 
he  returned  to  tobacco,  his  first  enemy,  with 
his  naturally  fine  abilities  ruined  through 
the  appetite  for  narcotics. 


40  OPIUM. 

Turning  from  one  narcotic  to  another  is 
merely  a  change  of  masters.  The  only  hope 
for  the  poor  victim  lies  in  his  power  to  stop 
using  all  of  these  poisons. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  is  opium  obtained? 

2.  Under  what  names  is  it  sold  ? 

3.  Describe  its  effects  on  the  user. 

4.  Why  are   there   more   opium-users   among  women  than  among 

men? 

5.  Why  does  soothing-syrup  stop  a  child's  cry? 

6.  What  other  narcotics  are  used  in  a  similar  way? 

7.  Is  it  safe  and  right  to  so  use  them  ?     Why  ? 

8.  Why  are  opium,   chloral,  and  chloroform  called  narcotics? 

9.  Is  any  thing  gained  by  changing  one  narcotic  for  another? 
10.  What    is    the    only   safe    rule    in    regard    to    the    use    of   these 

poisons? 


OHAPTEE      VI. 

BONES. 

NY  part  of  an  animal  or  vegetable  body 
which,  has  some  special  work  to  do,  is 
called  an  organ.  For  example,  the -root  takes 
up  food  for  the  plant ;  the  eye  is  the  organ 
of  sight;  the  nose  is  the  organ  of  smell. 

Plants  and  animals  are  called  organic 
bodies,  because  they  have  organs.  Stone, 
iron,  coal,  and  other  minerals,  are  called  in- 
organic bodies,  because  they  have  no  organs. 

The  solid  parts  of  the  body  are  called 
tissues ;  thus  we  speak  of  the  fatty-tissue, 
and  the  muscular-tissue. 

THE     HUMAN      SKELETON. 

This  is  so  much  like  the  skeleton  of  the 
ox  or  the  cat,  that  studying  their  bones  will 
help  us  to  understand  about  our  own. 


42 


BONES. 


FIG.  4. 


The  Iminan  skeleton  is  composed  of  about 
two  hundred  separate  hones.  It  forms  the 
frame-work  of  the  body,  and  fur- 
nishes a  hard  surface  to  which  to 
fasten  the  flesh.  It  also  protects 
the  softer  parts  within,  as  the 
heart  and  lungs. 

SHAPE     OF     THE     BONES. 

Some  are  long-,  like  those  of 
the  leg  and  arm ;  some  are  flat, 
like  the  hones  of  the  head.  In 
the  ankle  and  wrist,  they  are  short 
and  irreg-ular.  All  are  shaped  for 
their  special  uses  in  the  hody. 

COMPOSITION     OF    THE     BONES. 

The  hones  are  made  of  hoth 
mineral  and  animal  matter. 

To  prove  this,  "burn  the  leg- 
hone  of  a  chicken  in  a  slow  fire  ; 
the  animal  matter  will  pass  away, 
leaving  a  white  substance  the 
shape  of  the  hone,  until  it  is  roughly  touched 
— then  it  crumbles  into  dust.  This  is  a  kind 
of  lime,  and  is  valuable  as  a  fertilizer. 


The  thigh-bone 

(femur)  sawed 

lengthwise. 


GROWTH    OF    THE    BONES.  43 

The  mineral  matter  may  be  removed  by 
soaking  a  bone  for  a  few  hours  in  weak 
muriatic  aeid  ;  the  animal  matter,  or  gristle, 
which  is  left,  is  soft  and  yielding,  so  that 
you  may  bend  the  bone,  or  tie  it  in  a  knot 
if  long  enough. 

Egg-shells,  also,  contain  lime.  You  may 
easily  puzzle  some  of  your  friends,  by  putting 
an  egg  into  a  very  small-necked  bottle.  All 
that  you  need  to  do  is  to  soak  the  egg  in 
weak  acid,  until  the  shell  is  so  soft  that  it 
can  be  pushed  through  the  neck  of  the 
bottle ;  once  in,  it  will  take  its  natural  form 
again. 

In  childhood,  the  bones  contain  more  ani- 
mal than  mineral  matter,  and  so  are  not 
easily  broken ;  in  old  age,  there  is  more 
mineral  than  animal  matter,  and  the  bones 
are  brittle  and  break  very  easily. 

GROWTH    OF    THE     BONES. 

Like  the  rest  of  the  body,  the  bones  are 
fed  by  the  food  we  eat. 

Mix  some  bright  coloring-matter  that  is 
not  poisonous,  as  madder,  with  the  food  given 


44  BONES. 

to  a  young-  pig-  for  a  time,  and  then  give  the 
same  food  without  the  color.  If  the  animal 
he  killed  after  a  short  time,  each  hone  will 
show  the  color  of  the  madder.  This  proves 
that  the  hones  were  made  from  the  food  the 
animal  had  eaten. 

LIFE     OF    THE     BONES. 

In  infancy,  hones  hegin  their  life  as  a  sort 
of  jelly,  which  hardens  into  gristle,  or  carti- 
lage, as  the  child  grows.  This  cartilage  re- 
ceives from  the  hlood  several  kinds  of  food, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  certain 
forms  of  lime ;  these,  little  hy  little,  change 
the  soft  gristle  to  hard  hone. 

Farmers  give  their  hens  oyster -shells, 
which  contain  lime,  so  that  they  may  have 
material  for  the  shells  of  the  eggs  they  lay. 
Human  heings  get  lime  from  milk  and  other 
foods  containing  it.  When  the  hones  have 
too  little  lime,  they  are  soft  and  weak. 

A  fatty  matter,  called  marrow,  is  in  the 
inside  of  the  long  hones,  with  hlood-vessels 
passing  through  it  and  through  very  small 
holes  in  the  bone  itself,  carrying  food  for  its 


BROKEN     BONES.  45 

life    and   growth.       Covering-   each   hone    is   a 
very  thin,  tough  skin. 

BROKEN     BONES. 

If  an  iron  rod  in  a  steam-engine  should 
"break,  would  it  he  enough  to  fasten  the 
hrokeii  pieces  tightly,  end  to  end,  and  then 
wait  a  few  weeks  for  the  iron  to  grow  to- 
gether? You  laugh  at  the  idea.  But  the 
hones  do  that — they  mend  themselves  when 
hrokeii. 

All  that  is  needed  is  to  put  the  ends  in 
place  and  fasten  them  tightly  with  splints 
and  handages,  so  that  they  can  not  move. 
Soon  a  jelly-like  suhstance,  made  from  the 
hlood  in  the  hone,  connects  the  two  ends; 
then  this  changes  to  gristle,  and,  hy-and-hy, 
into  solid  hone,  and  the  hreak  is  mended. 

The  hones  of  young  people,  when  hroken, 
unite  readily,  and,  in  a  few  weeks,  hecome  as 
strong  as  ever.  This  is  due  'hoth  to  the 
composition  of  the  hones  and  the  ahundant 
supply  of  repairing  suhstances  in  the  hlood. 
^A  hone  hroken  late  in  life  is  a  long  time 
in  heing  united,  and  is  likely  to  remain  weak. 


46 


BONES. 


THE  SKULL  AND  FACE  BONES. 

These  protect  tlie  organs  of  sight,  hearing, 
smell,  and  taste,  and  the  brain,  the  organ  of 
thought. 

FIG.  5. 


The  sfcutt.—l,  frontal  bone  ;  2,  parietal  bone ;  3,  temporal  bone  ;  6,  superior  maxil- 
lary (upper  jaw)  bone;  7,  malar  bone;  9,  nasal  bone;  10,  inferior  maxillary  (lower 
jaw)  bone. 

THE     TRUNK. 

The  bones  of  the  trunk  are  the  backbone, 
or  spine,  the  ribs,  the  breast-bone,  and  the 
hip  bones.  The  spine  is  composed  of  a  series 
of  twenty-four  little  bones,  called  vertebrae. 


THE    TRUNK. 


47 


Cushions  of  gristle  lie  between  Fla.  c. 

the  vertebrae.  If  it  were  not  for 
this,  walking1  and  running  would 
jar  the  body  greatly. 

In  sitting  or  standing,  as  we 
do  through,  the  day,  these  cush- 
ions are  pressed,  and  so  flattened. 
When  we  lie  down  at  night,  they 
return  to  their  natural  shape, 
much,  as  a  rubber  eraser  would  do 
if  you  pressed  it  with  your  finger 
and  tnen  took  the  finger  away. 
For  this  reason,  one  is  really  a 
little  taller  in  the  morning  than 
at  night. 

The  ribs  are  slender,  curved 
bones,  twenty-four  in  number, 
twelve  on  each  side  of  the  body. 
Behind,  they  are  attached  to  the 
backbone ;  in  front,  seven  pairs 
are  joined  to  a  dagger-shaped 
bone,  called  the  breast -bone; 
three  pairs  are  joined  by  gristle 
to  each  other,  and  then  to  the  breast-bone; 
two  pairs  are  " floating"  ribs.  (See  Fig.  7.) 


The  spine; 
the  seven  ver- 
tebrae of  the 
neck,  cervical; 
the  twelve  of 
the  back,  dor- 
sal; the  five  of 


48 


BONES. 


The  liip  bones  are  two  large,  irregular 
bones  which  form  the  side  walls  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  trunk. 


FIG.  8. 


Fro.  7. 


Jf 


The  chest;  a,  the  sternum  or  breast-bone; 
b  to  c,  the  true  ribs;  d  to  f,  the  false  ribs; 
g,  h,  the  floating  ribs ;  i  to  k,  the  dorsal  verte- 


Bones  of  right  fore-arm ;  H,  the 
humerus;  R,  the  radius;  U,  the 
ulna. 


THE      UPPER      LIMBS. 

The  collar-bones  are  in  front  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  body;  the  shoulder-blades,  at  the 
back.  Fastened  to  the  latter,  on  each  side, 
is  the  large  bone  of  the  upper  arm;  below 


THE    LOWER    LIMBS. 


the  elbow,  are  tlie  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm, 
and  those  of  the  wrist,  the  palm  of  the  hand, 
and  the  thumb  and  fingers. 


FIG. 


FIG.  10. 


Bones  of  the  foot;  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  bones 
of  the  ankle  and  instep;  h,  i,  forward  part 
of  the  foot ;  k,  1,  bones  of  the  great  l»e  ; 
m,  n,  o,  bones  of  the  other  toes. 


The  shoulder-joint;  a,  the  collar-bone; 
b,  the  shoulder-blade;  c,  the  large  bone  of 
the  upper  arm. 


THE     LOWER     LIMBS. 

The  thigh-bone,  in  the  leg  above  the  knee, 
joins  the  hip  bone.  Below  the  knee  are  the 
two  bones  of  the  lower  leg  and  those  of  the 
ankle,  foot,  and  toes.  In  front  of  the  knee- 
joint  is  a  small  bone,  called  the  knee-pan, 


50  BONES. 

As  there  are  nineteen  bones  in  each  hand 
or  foot,  they  have  a  great  variety  of  motions. 
A  hand  or  foot  made  of  one  hone,  would  he 
stiff  and  clumsy.* 

CAVITIES. 

There  are  two  principal  cavities,  or  hol- 
low places,  in  the  bony  frame-work. 

The  first  is  the  cavity  of  the  head.  The 
second  is  a  great  hollow  place,  extending 
from  the  neck  to  the  legs,  divided  into  two 
parts  by  a  partition  called  the  diaphragm 

(dl'a  fram). 

In  the  upper  part — the  chest— are  the  heart 
and  lungs;  in  the  lower — the  abdomen  —  are 
the  liver,  stomach,  bowels  or  intestines,  kid- 
neys, and  other  organs. 


*  Many  Japanese  and  Chinese  use  their  toes  almost  as  readily 
as  they  do  their  fingers.  They  will  pick  up  tools  "with  their  toes 
and  work  with  them,  while  managing  other  instruments  in  their 
hands. 

Workmen  in  Constantinople  always  sit  on  the  ground,  even  in 
planing  a  "board ;  sometimes  they  hold  a  long-handled  chisel  in  the 
left  hand,  "while  the  toes  guide  the  cutting  edge  in  turning  beau- 
tiful forms  in  a  lathe." 

"Arabs  braid  ropes  with  their  toes  and  fingers  laboring  in  con- 
cert." Our  toes  are  so  cramped  in  their  stiff  leather  boots  that  we 
do  not  pretend  to  use  them. 


TABLE    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    BONES. 


51 


TABLE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  BONES, 

THE    HEAD    AND    FACE. 

COMMON  NAME  OB  POSITION. 
Forehead. 
Back  of  the  head. 
Upper  side  w^lls  of  the 

head. 
Lo\ver  side  walls  of  the 

head. 

Upper  jaw. 
Lo\ver  jaw. 


No.  SCIENTIFIC  NAME. 

1.— Front'al 
1.— Oe  9lp'i  tal 
2.— Pa  rt'e  tal 

2.— TSm'po  ral 


2.— Su  pe'ri  or  MSx'il  la  ry 
1.— Inferior  M&x'il  la  ry 
2.— Ma'lar 
2.— Na'gal 


Cheek. 
Nose. 


THE    SHOULDER,    ARM,    AND    HAND. 


No.  SCIENTIFIC  NAME. 

1.— S-eap'ula 

1.— Clav'i-el^ 

1.— Hu'me  rtts 

1.— Ra'di  us  i 

1.— Ul'na       i 

8.— -Gar' pus 

S. — M£t  a  •ear'  pus 
14.— Phalan'. 


COMMON  NAME  OB  POSITION. 
Shoulder-blade. 
Collar-bone. 
Upper  arm. 

Fore-arm. 

Wrist. 
Hand. 
Thumb  and  fingers. 


52  BONES. 

THE    TRUNK. 

No.           SCIENTIFIC  NAME.  COMMON  NAME  OB  POSITION. 

24.  —  Ver'te  brae  Backbone. 

24.—  Ribs  Side  walls  of  the  chest. 

1.—  Ster'num  Breast-bone. 

2.—  In  n6m  i  na'ta  Hip  bones. 

THE  LEG    AND    FOOT. 

No.           SCIENTIFIC  NAME.  COMMON  NAME  OB  POSITION. 

1.—  Fe'mur  Thigh. 

1  .—Pa  tSl'lA  Knee-pan. 
1.—  TIb'ia     , 


leg. 
1.—  Fib'  dia 

7.—  Tar'sus  Ankle. 

5.—  M§t  a  tar'sus  Foot. 

1  4.—  Pha  ian'ge§  Toes. 


GENERAL      DEFINITIONS. 

A  nat'o  my  tells  how  the  body  is  built  and  the  loca- 
tion of  its  parts. 

Phys  i  oV  o  gy  tells  the  uses  of  each  part  of  the  body. 

Hy'gi  ene  tells   the  conditions  of  health,  and  how  to 
preserve  it. 


POSITIONS    OF    THE    BODY.  53 

POSITIONS     OF     THE     BODY. 

The  bones  of  children  are  easily  bent  out 
of  shape  by  wrong-  positions  in  sitting  and 
standing.  Their  feet  should  be  supported 
when  sitting,  lest  the  bones  of  the  lower 
limbs  become  bent. 

The  head  and  shoulders  should  be  thrown 
back  and  the  body  held  erect  in  walking, 
standing,  or  sitting,  or  the  spine  will  become 
crooked. 

The  cushions  of  gristle  between  the  ver- 
tebrso  permit  free  and  graceful  motions  of 
the  body.  If  we  stand  erect,  with  the  chin 
quite  close  to  the  neck,  the  head,  without 
being  bent  forward,  is  perfectly  balanced  over 
our  feet. 

But  if  one  has  the  habit  of  stooping  for- 
ward, these  cushions  are  so  tightly  pressed 
on  the  front  that  they  lose  their  elasticity; 
then  one  can  hardly  keep  erect,  and  we  say 
he  is  "round-shouldered."  Bad  as  this  looks, 
it  is  the  cause  of  worse  trouble,  as  will  be 
seen  when  we  study  the  lungs. 

If  the   body  leans    to  one  side,  when  one 


54  BONES. 

is  standing,  the  hip  bones  will  soon  grow 
out  of  shape.  Unless  careful  about  this,  you 
will  make  your  body  one-sided  by  your  po- 
sition at  the  blackboard,  or  when  standing 
to  recite. 

In  walking,  the  foot  expands  in  length 
and  breadth.  This  should  be  remembered  in 
buying  shoes. 

The  heels  of  shoes  ought  to  be  low  and 
broad,  and  placed  well  back ;  high  heels 
crowd  the  foot  forward  and  throw  the  whole 
body  out  of  position.  The  shoe  should  be 
broad  across  the  ball  of  the  foot  and  the 
toes. 

Tight  shoes  and  high  heels  make  the  toes 
over-ride  each  other,  spoil  the  natural  beauty 
of  the  foot  and  the  graceful  carriage  of  the 
person,  and  are  likely  to  cause  bunions,  corns, 
and  ingrowing  toe  nails. 

The  laws  of  health  are  of  much  more 
importance  than  those  of  fashion.  Children's 
shoes  must  be  changed  frequently  for  larger 
ones,  on  account  of  their  rapidly-growing 
feet;  if  this  is  not  done,  serious  injury  will 
be  the  result. 


JOINTS. 


55 


TOBACCO     AND     THE    BONES. 

In  whatever  way  tobacco  may  affect  grown 
people,  it  is  very  certain  that  its  use  in 
childhood  stunts  the  "bones  and  dwarfs  all 
the  growth  of  the  child.  No  boy  who  wants 
to  become  a  full-grown,  well-shaped  man,  can 
afford  to  smoke  or  chew  tobacco. 

FIG.  11. 


The  flip-joint. 


JOINTS. 

A  joint    is    the    place  of  union  of  two  or 
more  bones. 

At    the   shoulder   and   hip    are    "ball-and- 


56  BONES. 

socket"  joints,  which  permit  very  easy  move- 
ments of  the  arm  and  leg.  In  the  fingers, 
wrist,  and  knee,  are  "  hinge-joints,"  so  named 
because  the  hones  move  backward  and  for- 
ward like  a  door  upon  its  hinges.  The  bones 
of  the  head  have  rough  edges  which  fit  into 
each  other,  making  immovable  joints. 

An  engine  must  be  often  oiled,  or  it  will 
not  run  properly.  It  can  not  take  care  of 
itself.  But  the  bones  not  only  mend  them- 
selves, but  oil  themselves.  The  joints  are 
kept  moist  by  a  thin  fluid  like  the  white  of 
an  egg;  this  comes  from  the  smooth  lining 
of  the  inside  of  the  joint;  and  it  makes  the 
ends  of  the  bones  move  readily  on  each  other. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  an  organ? 

2.  Give  examples  of  organs  in  plant  life  — in  animal  life. 

3.  What  are  organic  "bodies?  — inorganic  bodies? 

4.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  bones? 

5.  What  is  the  composition  of  the  "bones? 

6.  Why  do  the  bones  of  a  child  not  break  as  easily  as  those  of  an 

old  person? 

7.  What  mineral  food  is  needed  for  the  bones? 

8.  How  is  a  broken  bone  mended  ? 

9.  How  may  the  bones  of  the  lower  limbs  be  bent  ? 

10.  Define  Anatomy  ;   Physiology ;   Hygiene. 

11.  Describe  the  position  in  which  one  ought  to  stand. 

12.  How  does  tobacco  affect  the  bones  of  a  child? 

13.  What  is  a  joint  ?     Describe  two  kinds. 


CHAPTEE     VII. 


MUSCLES. 

1HE  muscles  are  tlie  flesh 
of  the  body.  They  con- 
sist of  bundles  of  threads  or 
fibers ;  between  the  fibers 
are  blood-vessels  and  nerves. 

The  muscles  are  fastened 
to  the  bones  by  strong, 
tough  cords,  called  tendons 
or  sinews;  these  are  easily 
seen,  by  pulling  off  the  meat 
from  the  leg  of  a  fowl.  The 
"lean  meat"  which  we  eat 
is  the  flesh  or  muscles  of 
the  animal. 

Cut,  carefully,  some 
boiled  corned  beef,  and  you 
can  divide  it  into  the  little 
threads  of  which  it  is  made. 
When  people  have  only 


FIG.  12. 


Tendons  of  the  hand. 


58  MUSCLES. 

small,  thin  muscles    attached  to  their  bones, 
they  are  weak  and  can  not  do  much  work. 

In  some  parts  of  the  body,  fat  lies  over 
the  muscles,  and  is,  to  some  extent,  mingled 
with  them.  A  kind  of  inner  skin,  called 
"  connective-tissue,"  covers  the  flesh,  bones, 
gristle,  and  other  organs. 

EXPANSION     AND     CONTRACTION. 

When  a  boy  raises  his  fore-arm,  saying, 
"  Feel  my  muscle,"  each  fiber  of  the  muscle 
on  the  front  of  his  upper  arm  has  shortened 
and  thickened.  This  pulls  up  his  fore-arm. 

When  he  stretches  his  arm,  the  fibers 
lengthen  and  return  to  their  natural  shape, 
and  a  muscle  on  the  back  of  the  upper  arm 
shortens  and  thickens  in  a  similar  way. 

USES     OF     THE     MUSCLES. 

It  is  by  means  of  the  muscles  that  we 
keep  erect,  walk,  run,  leap,  or  move  in  any 
way.  The  motion  of  the  many  muscles  of 
the  face  gives  it  variety  of  expression,  show- 
ing the  feelings  of  the  mind. 

Within  tie  skeleton,  in  the  cavities  of  the 


VOLUNTARY    AND    INVOLUNTARY    MUSCLES.      59 

trunk,  there  are  muscles  at  work,  without 
which  we  could,  not  live ;  for  instance,  the 
heart,  that  sends  the  blood  all  over  the  body, 
is  a  strong  muscle;  the  outer  coat  of  the 
stomach  has  a  lining  of  muscular  fibers. 

VOLUNTARY  AND  INVOLUNTARY  MUSCLES 

Some  of  the  muscles,  as  those  of  the  arm 
or  face,  we  can  move  when  we  choose,  or  will 
to  do  so ;  others,  as  the  heart  and  diaphragm, 
keep  at  work  without  any  thought  of  ours ; 
they  will  not  stop  by  our  wishing  them  to. 

The  first  are  called  voluntary  muscles; 
the  second,  involuntary  muscles. 

HYGIENE     OF     THE     MUSCLES. 

Good  food,  pure  air,  and  proper  exercise, 
are  necessary  for  muscular  health.  Long  dis- 
use of  a  muscle  wastes  it  away.  Exercise 
causes  new  fibers  to  form  and  old  fibers  to 
increase  in  size. 

But  too  much,  or  too  violent  exercise  is 
dangerous,  and  it  is  wrong  to  work  so  hard 
as  to  be  always  tired.  Yariety  of  exercise 
rests  the  muscles. 


60  MUSCLES. 

One  who  lias  "been  working  with  hands, 
or  brain,  all  day,  will  be  rested  by  a  brisk 
out-door  walk.  When  one  has  been  using-  his 
lower  limbs  for  some  time,  they  are  tired; 
if  he  then  sits  down,  and  uses  his  arms,  or 
hands,  and  thus  rests  the  muscles  of  his  legs, 
or  uses  his  brain  in  thinking  or  reading,  he 
will  feel  refreshed. 

Brisk  exercise  should  not  be  taken  just 
before,  nor  after  a  full  meal.  Exercise  out- 
doors is  better  than  exercise  in-doors,  and 
should  be  taken  daily  by  all  who  would  have 
good  health. 

KINDS     OF     EXERCISE. 

Playing  ball,  rolling  hoop,  throwing  bean- 
bags,  coasting,  skating,  and  swimming,  are 
capital  forms  of  exercise,  if  not  carried  too 
far. 

Jumping  the  rope  is  not  good  exercise,  for 
it  jars  the  body  too  much,  while  there  is  great 
danger  of  catching  the  feet  in  the  rope  and 
so  getting  a  hard  fall,  and,  perhaps,  a  broken 
Limb. 

Sawing  wood,  and  keeping   the  wood-box 


ALCOHOL     AND    THE     MUSCLES.  61 

and  coal-hod  filled,  running  home-errands 
with  happy  faces  and  light  hearts,  are 
healthful  ways  of  exercise. 

Cheerfulness  is  a  great  help  to  exercise. 
Whistling  or  singing  is  a  good  sign  in  a 
working  boy  or  girl. 

ALCOHOL  AND  THE  MUSCLES. 

Press  your  finger  on  lean  beef  before  it  is 
cooked,  and  notice  how  the  part  touched 
springs  back  when  you  take  your  finger 
away. 

Do  the  same  with  fat  meat,  and  you 
will  find  that  a  deeper  dent  stays  there.  If 
the  flesh  in  your  body,  like  the  fat,  could 
not  contract,  you  would  not  be  able  to 
move. 

Beer,  gin,  wine,  cider,  and  all  alcoholic 
drinks,  tend  more  or  less  to  change  the 
muscles  themselves  to  fat. 

The  muscles  can  not  move  and  work 
properly,  when  thus  changed;  not  only  does 
this  fat  prevent  their  healthy  action,  but  it 
is  made  from  waste  matter  that  should  be 
sent  out  of  the  body. 


62  MUSCLES. 

Beer  is  especially  bad  in  this  respect. 
Beer-drinkers  think  they  are  growing  strong 
because  they  grow  fleshy.  But  they  are 
only  loading  their  muscles  "with  this  use- 
less fat,  which  hinders  instead  of  helping 
them.  Beer-drinkers  often  die  from  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  heart  disease,  called  "  fatty 
heart." 

The  poor  heart  is  not  only  clogged,  but 
also  weakened  by  this  increase  of  fat,  and  the 
more  beer  one  drinks,  the  greater  the  increase 
of  fat.  The  heart  bears  this  abuse  as  long  as 
it  can,  and  then  it  stops — the  drinker  is  dead. 

LIFE     AND     DEATH. 

Let  us  try  to  see  with  "  the  mind's 
eye,"  the  bones,  the  gristle,  the  muscles,  the 
tendons  and  connective-tissue,  the  cavities 
of  the  head,  chest,  and  abdomen  with  their 
organs ;  remember,  as  we  look,  that  these 
are  all  bound  together  in  one  life. 

The  most  "wonderful  thing  in  the  living 
body  is  the  mind  or  soul.  We  think  at  once, 
when  we  see  a  dead  body:  "How  still  and 
cold  it  is  !  "  Bodily  warmth  and  motion  show 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS.  63 

life;  but  what  life  is,  we  liave  no  means  of 
knowing. 

Our  present  study  will  teach  us  how  to 
preserve  it,  and  how  to  keep  our  bodies  strong 
and  healthy. 

So  important  a  subject  should  receive  the 
careful  attention  of  every  one,  and  the  rules 
that  are  of  benefit  to  health  ought  to  be 
followed. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  are  muscles?     Describe  their  structure. 

2.  How  are  muscles  fastened  to  the  bones? 

3.  Where  is  the  fat  of  the  body  ? 

4.  What  is  connective-tissue? 

5.  How  do  the  muscles  act  in  moving  the  limbs  ? 

6.  What  is  the  special  work  of  the  muscles  on  the  outside  of  the 

skeleton  ? 

7.  Give  examples  of  those  muscles  within  the  skeleton. 

8.  Name  the  two  classes  of  muscles,  and  define  each  kind. 

9.  What  things  are  needed  for  the  production  of  healthy  muscular- 

tissue  ? 

10.  What  are  the  dangers  connected  with  exercise? 

11.  Is  overwork  wise  or  right? 

12.  How  may  one  rest  and  yet  keep  at  work? 

13.  When  is  brisk  exercise  unhealthful? 
I!.    What  is  said  of  outdoor  exercise  ? 

15.  Name  some  healthful  kinds  of  exercise. 

16.  How  does  cheerfulness  help  the  muscles? 

17.  State  one  difference  between  flesh  and  fat. 

18.  How  is  the  action  of  the   poison,  alcohol,  likely  to  affect  mus- 

cular-tissue ? 

19.  Does   an   increase   of  flesh  always  mean  an  increase  of  health? 

Why? 


64  REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 


20.  What  is  said  of  beer  as  a  drink? 

21.  How  may  a  "fatty  heart"  be  caused? 

22.  State  difference  "between  living  and  dead  bodies. 

23.  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  studying  physiology  ? 


CHAPTER     VI. 

1.  What  are  the  solid  parts  of  the  body  called  ? 

2.  How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  human  skeleton  ? 

3.  Mention  some  of  the  long  bones;  — some  short  ones. 

4.  By    what    process    may    an    egg    be    put    into    a    small-necked 

bottle  ? 

5.  Describe  the  changes  in  the  composition  of  the  bones  from  in- 

fancy to  old  age. 

6.  What  are  the  names  of  the  bones  of  the  arm?  — of  the  trunk? 

7.  Why  should  the  shoes  of  children  be  changed  frequently  ? 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  results  from  wearing  tight  shoes? 


CHAPTER     VIII. 

FOOD. 

'OOD  is  any  substance  which  can  "be  taken 
into  the  body  and  used  for  its  health, 
life,  and  growth.  We  must  have  daily  food  to 
repair  the  daily  waste  of  our  "bodies,  to  keep 
them  warm,  and,  in  childhood  and  youth,  to 
make  them  grow. 

SOURCES     OF     FOOD. 

The  earth  and  the  air  contain  the  ma- 
terials on  which  our  lives  depend.  But  most 
of  these  materials  must  be  changed  in  form, 
before  they  are  fit  for  us  to  eat. 

We  hold  in  the  hand  a  grain  of  "wheat. 
It  has  no  sign  of  life ;  no  leaves  show  that 
it  can  drink  in  moisture  and  sunlight.  Its 
outer  husk  is  hard  and  dry.  It  seems  no 
more  alive  than  the  grains  of  sand  on  which 
we  are  standing. 


66  FOOD. 

Put  it  into  well-prepared  ground.  By  the 
help  of  the  sun,  air,  and  moisture,  it  sends 
out  rootlets  into  the  dark  earth,  green  shoots 
break  through  the  soil,  and  the  stem  length- 
ens. By-and-by,  a  graceful  plume  loaded 
with  the  grain  that  is  to  make  our  bread, 
trembles  in  the  breeze. 

Down  in  the  meadow  is  a  beautiful  car- 
pet of  green  grass.  It  is  a  good  place  for 
play,  but  you  could  not  eat  the  grass;  you 
would  starve  to  death  if  you  had  nothing  else. 

But  that  grass  is  growing,  in  order  to 
make  food  for  you.  Cattle  are  feeding  on  it ; 
it  goes  into  their  bodies,  and  out  of  it,  are 
made  the  milk  you  drink  so  freely,  and  the 
flesh  which  may  come  to  your  table  as  roast 
beef  or  beefsteak. 

We  eat,  unchanged,  a  few  inorganic  sub- 
stances, or  substances  which  have  never  had 
life,  such  as  water  and  salt ;  but  most  of 
our  food  is  organic  — has  been  living, —  it  has 
been  prepared  by  plants  from  the  earth  and 
air,  or  by  animals  who,  by  their  own  eating 
and  living,  have  changed  vegetable  into  ani- 
mal matter. 


MINERAL    FOOD.  6T 

KINDS     OF     FOOD. 

Our  food  is  divided  into  three  great  classes— 

1st. — Mineral  food. 

2cL— Food  like  the  whites  of  eggs,  or  lean 
meat,  which  is  needed  for  the  growth  or  re- 
pair of  the  various  parts  of  the  body ;  it  is 
sometimes  called  tissue-making-  food. 

3d.— Fats  or  oils,  starch  and  sugar. 

MINERAL     FOOD. 

This  includes  all  inorganic  substances  that 
we  eat  unchanged,  together  with  some  that 
we  get  in  other  kinds  of  food.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  water  and  salt. 

If  a  man  weigh  160  pounds,  about  140 
pounds  of  this  weight  is  nothing  but  water— 
"quite  enough,  if  rightly  arranged,  to  drown 
him." 

Much  of  this  is  in  the  blood,  some  in  the 
muscles,  some  in  the  tears,  arid  the  rest  in 
other  parts  of  the  body,  as  you  will  learn  by 
further  study.  It  dissolves  other  food,  so'that 
the  body  can  use  it,  and  helps  to  regulate 
the  heat  of  the  system. 


68  FOOD. 

We  must  have  water  to  drink,  and  it 
should  be  pure  and  good.  Death  from  thirst 
is  quicker  and  more  painful  than  death  from 
lack  of  food. 

We  do  not  drink  all  the  water  which  the 
body  requires;  for  we  get  a  large  part  of 
the  amount  needed  in  the  food  itself,  as  in 
fruits  and  vegetables,  the  juices  of  meat, 
milk,  and  the  water  used  in  cooking  these. 

PURITY    OF    WATER. 

Water  that  runs  through  lead  pipes,  is 
very  likely  to  dissolve  some  of  the  lead,  if 
it  stands  in  the  pipes  for  any  length  of  time. 

Lead  is  a  very  sure  poison.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  draw  off  all  the  water  that  has 
so  stood,  so  as  to  avoid  danger.  You  will 
learn  more  about  poisoned  water  in  the  chap- 
ter on  respiration. 

SALT. 

Watch  the  sheep  when  the  farmer  "salts" 
them,  and  see  how  eager  they  are  for  the 
treat.  Salt  is  necessary  to  man,  as  well  as 


TISSUE-MAKING    FOODS.  69 

to  the  lower  animals;  but  it  exists  natur- 
ally in  most  food-materials.  A  moderate 
amount  of  it,  as  seasoning-,  makes  our  food 
more  agreeable  and  healthful. 

LIME,     PHOSPHORUS,     AND     IRON. 

The  bones  need  lime,  the  brain  requires 
phosphorus,  and  the  blood  must  have  iron, 
in  order  to  be  perfectly  healthy. 

But  we  can  not  eat  clear  lime,  phosphorus, 
or  iron.  We  must  get  them  by  eating  vege- 
tables which  have  taken  these  minerals 
from  the  ground  and  made  them  into  ma- 
terial fit  for  our  use,  or  by  eating  the  flesh 
of  animals  which  have  fed  upon  such  vege- 
tables. 

TISSUE-MAKING     FOODS. 

Among  the  most  important  of  these  are 
milk  and  the  grains;  they  are  found,  too,  in 
eggs  and  the  different  kinds  of  meat. 

Wheat  contains  more  of  these  foods  than 
other  common  grains,  and  bread  made  from 
this  grain  is  most  nourishing  and  best. 


70  FOOD. 

FATS    OR    OILS,     STARCH    AND    SUGAR. 

These  are  used,  in  part,  for  the  growth  and 
repair  of  the  body;  hut  they  are  of  especial 
use  in  keeping1  the  body  warm. 

THE     FATS     OR     OILS. 

These  are  found  in  both  animal  and  veg- 
etable food ;  for  example,  beef  and  mutton 
suets,  the  cream  of  milk,  the  yolks  of  eg"gs, 
Indian  corn,  olive  and  palm  oils. 

People  who  live  in  cold  climates  need 
and  crave  much  of  this  kind  of  food. 

A  story  is  told  of  some  English  sailors 
who  prepared  a  "  Christmas  tree,"  as  a  treat 
for  a  company  of  Esquimau  children.  As 
no  suitable  tree  could  be  had,  they  made  an 
imitation  one,  by  tying  together  walrus  bones, 
shaping  the  whole  to  look  as  much  as  pos- 
sible like  a  tree. 

Instead  of  candy,  they  made  some  balls  of 
whale  blubber  and  hung  them  on  the  "tree." 
The  children  were  delighted  and  ate  the  balls 
of  fat  as  eagerly  as  you  eat  your  Christmas 
candies. 

Some  food  of  this  kind  is  necessary;    and, 


STARCH.  71 

if  one  does   not    like    it,  he    should    learn    to 
eat  enough  of  it  for  health. 

Those  who  do  not  eat  fats  of  any  kind, 
are  "usually  thin  and  unhealthy  and  likely 
to  have  some  serious  disease,  as  scrofula  or 
consumption,  even  while  young.  Butter  may 
be  used  instead  of  fat  meat  if  preferred.  On 
the  other  hand,  too  much  fat  must  not  he 
eaten;  a  naturally  fleshy  person  requires  less 
than  the  average  amount. 

STARCH. 

Starch  forms  a  large  part  of  most  grains, 
seeds,  roots,  and  unripe  fruits.  As  you  know, 
it  must  be  cooked,  or,  in  fruits  and  nuts, 
ripened,  before  it  is  fit  for  food. 

Corn-starch  and  potato-starch  are  in  com- 
mon use  by  the  cook  and  laundress.  Rice, 
the  chief  food  of  the  people  of  India,  China, 
and  Japan,  is  three-quarters  starch.  Unripe 
fruits,  as  green  apples,  contain  so  much  starch 
that  they  are  very  likely  to  make  you  sick 
if  you  eat  them  uncooked. 

All  starchy  foods,  as  those  from  the  grains, 
require  long  and  thorough  cooking  to  make 


72  FOOD. 

them    more    easily   digested   and   more   nour- 
ishing. 

Gum  resembles  starch,  but  is  less  nutri- 
tious. Some  kinds,  as  gum  arabic,  are  used 
for  food  in  Eastern  countries. 

SUGAR. 

Sugar  is  an  important  article  of  food. 
But  a  person  would,  in  time,  starve  to  death 
if  fed  alone  on  either  sugar  or  starcn. 

Too  much  sugar  is  often  eaten  in  the 
form  of  candy,  and  does  much  harm  when 
eaten  between  meals.  Injurious  substances 
are  often  put  into  candy,  to  give  it  color  or 
increase  its  weight.  The  results  of  eating 
much  candy  are  a  "  sour  stomach,"  "bad 
breath,"  and  other  serious  troubles. 

The  coloring  matter  in  candies  is  often 
really  poisonous,  and  even  the  white  candy, 
usually  considered  the  purest,  is  sometimes 
largely  made  of  "terra  alba"  (ter'ra  ai'ba),  a 
kind  of  white  earth. 

Put  a  piece  of  candy  into  a  tumbler  with 
a  little  water;  if  it  is  not  pure,  when  the 
sugar  has  dissolved,  the  terra  alba  will  sink 


MILK.  73 

to    the    bottom    of  the    tumbler   in  the  form 
of  a  white  powder. 

Thus  you  can  easily  prove  whether  you 
are  eating-  sugar,  or  a  substance  that  is  worse 
than  useless,  because  it  clogs  the  body. 

MILK. 

Milk  is  the  only  food  provided  by  nature 
for  young  children.  Since  the  child  lives 
and  grows  upon  it,  we  should  expect  milk 
to  contain,  as  it  does,  the  different  classes 
of  food. 

The  cream  is  fat,  or  heat-forming  sub- 
stance; the  curd,  which  can  be  pressed  into 
cheese,  belongs  to  the  tissue-making  foods; 
there  is  enough  sugar  to  give  it  a  sweet 
taste,  and  it  contains  lime  and  other  min- 
erals needed  to  sustain  healthy  life,  besides 
water,  of  which  it  has  88  parts  in  100. 

WHAT     TO      EAT. 

Most  people,  in  temperate  climates,  eat 
both  animal  and  vegetable  food.  You  will 
usually  find  the  three  great  classes  of  food 
on  the  dinner-tables  of  your  homes. 


74  FOOD. 

Water  and  salt  are  mineral  foods;  pota- 
toes and  meat,  neat  and  tissue-making  foods. 
Most  persons  crave  the  fat  of  "butter  with 
the  starch  of  bread. 

Pepper,  mustard,  and  vinegar,  are  not 
needed  in  building  up  the  body  and  should 
be  very  sparingly  used,  if  at  all.  Probably 
a  perfectly  natural  and  healthy  appetite 
would  not  crave  them. 

If  the  system  needs  acids,  lemons  and 
limes,  which  are  more  healthful  than  vin- 
egar, may  be  eaten.  Fresh,  ripe  fruit  which 
generally  contains  some  acid,  is  wholesome 
when  too  much  is  not  taken. 

TEA    AND     COFFEE. 

The  value  of  these  to  adults  is  doubted 
by  many  wise  physicians.  Certainly  they 
are  not  necessary  or  safe  drinks  for  chil- 
dren. 

COOKING. 

Health  is,  in  great  measure,  dependent 
upon  the  way  in  which  our  food  is  cooked. 
Meat  should  be  boiled,  roasted,  or  broiled. 
Neither  meat  nor  any  other  food  should  be 


COOKING.  75 

fried:  heated  fat  hardens  whatever  is  cooked 
in  it,  making  it  difficult  of  digestion. 

To  eat  or  drink  what  we  know  is  un- 
healthful,  because  it  tastes  good,  is  not  only 
foolish  but  wicked. 

A  cook  who  well  understands  the  laws 
of  health,  will  not  feed  the  family  on  hot 
bread,  because  it  makes  a  pasty  mass  in 
the  stomach  which  can  not  easily  be  di- 
gested. 

Instead  of  rich  pastry,  and  cake  heavy 
with  fruit  and  spices,  which  overload  the 
stomach  and  unfit  it  for  proper  work,  juicy 
meat,  mealy  potatoes,  ripe  fruit,  and  light, 
sweet  bread,  will  be  prepared.  The  latter, 
when  it  is  made  from  the  whole  wheat, 
ground,  forms,  with  the  addition  of  butter, 
and  some  water  to  satisfy  thirst,  a  perfect 
food. 

In  "bolting,"  the  phosphorus  and  much 
of  the  flesh-making  part  of  the  grain  is  lost. 
Fine  wheat  flour  is  not  so  nourishing  for 
the  brain  and  muscles,  as  that  flour  "which 
contains  some  of  the  outer  portion  of  the 
kernel. 


76  FOOD. 


FRUITS. 

Ripe  fruits,  such,  as  apples,  oranges,  ba- 
nanas, and  "berries,  make  the  most  healthful 
" dessert."  The  skins,  cores,  and  seeds  should 
not  he  swallowed,  as  they  are  useless  and 
may  cause  trouble  if  eaten. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  food? 

2.  State  three  ways  in  which  it  is  used  by  our  bodies. 

3.  What  names  are  given  to  the  three  classes  of  food? 

4.  Name  the  three  principal  mineral  foods. 

5.  Do  we  need  to  drink  all  the  water  the  body  requires  ? 

6.  What  care  should  be  taken  in  the  use  of  lead  water-pipes? 

7.  How  do   we   get   salt,  lime,  and  other  mineral   substances   for 

our  bodies  ? 

8.  Name  the  principal  tissue-making  foods ;  — heat-making  foods. 

9.  Where  are  fats  or  oils  found? 

10.  Is  it  necessary  to  eat  fat  of  some  kind? 

11.  How  is  starch  made  fit  for  food? 

12.  Why  is  green  food  likely  to  make  one  sick? 

13.  What  are  the-  results  of  eating  too  much  sugar  ? 

14.  Show  that  all  three  classes  of  food  are  contained  in  milk. 

15.  Are  pepper,  mustard,  and  vinegar,  essential  to  health  ? 

16.  Why  should  a  cook  understand  the  laws  of  health? 

17.  Why  is  whole  wheat  flour  better  food  than  finely  bolted  flour  ? 


CHAPTER       IX. 

ARE      NARCOTICS      FOODS? 
IS     ALCOHOL      FOOD? 

PERFECT  food,  as  we  have  seen  in  the 
case  of  milk,  contains  water,  tissue- 
making,  and  heat-making*  materials. 

Alcohol  is  not  a  food,  for  it  can  not  build 
up  any  part  of  the  body.  It  contains  no  min- 
eral substance,  and  will  not  make  healthy  fat. 

Materials  in  the  blood  which  should  make 
muscles,  bone,  etc.,  as  well  as  those  which 
should  be  sent  out  of  the  body,  are  some- 
times changed  into  useless  fat  by  the  action 
of  alcohol.  The  heat  of  the  body  is  lessened 
by  alcohol,  instead  of  being  increased. 

IS      BEER     FOOD? 

Beer  is  made  from  water,  malt,  hops,  and 
yeast.  Water  can  be  obtained  better  and 
cheaper  elsewhere.  The  starch  of  the  grain, 


78  ARE    NARCOTICS     FOODS? 

you  remember,  was  changed  into  sugar  by 
malting,  and  the  sugar  turned  into  alcohol 
by  fermentation,  thus  losing  its  food  nature. 

The  gummy  substance  left  after  the  starch 
turned  to  sugar  and  then  to  alcohol,  and  the 
hops,  may  contain  a  slight  amount  of  ma- 
terial that  the  body  can  use.  But  the  amount 
of  food  in  beer  is  so  very  small,  as  scarcely 
to  be  worth  taking  into  account  in  speak- 
ing of  its  effects. 

"  As  much  flour  as  can  lie  on  the  point 
of  a  table-knife  is  more  nutritious  than  eight 
quarts  of  the  best  Bavarian  beer.'7  (Liebig.) 

A  man  gets  one  glass  of  pure  alcohol  in 
every  twenty  glasses  of  lager -beer  that  he 
drinks ;  in  the  stronger  beer,  one  glass  of 
alcohol  to  thirteen  of  beer. 

There  is  no  truth,  you  see,  in  the  claim 
that  beer  makes  one  stronger.  There  is  no 
food  in  it  "worth  mentioning,  and  its  alcohol 
does  a  vast  amount  of  harm. 

IS     WINE     FOOD? 

A  few  raisins  contain  more  nourishment 
than  much  wine.  Sugar  in  fruit-juice  be- 


IS    WINE    FOOD?  79 

comes  alcohol  by  fermentation ;  it  is  the  al- 
cohol, which  is  not  food,  that  the  wine- 
drinker  wants.  Often  more  alcohol  is  added 
to  the  wine  made  from  pure  fruit-juice,  to 
satisfy  the  craving-  for  a  stronger  drink. 

The  more  sugar  there  is  in  a  liquid  un- 
dergoing vinous  fermentation,  the  more  al- 
cohol will  it  produce.  Sweet  apples  and  sweet 
grapes  make  strong  cider  and  strong  wine. 
Currant,  gooseberry,  elderberry,  and  other 
home-made  wines,  sometimes  contain  even 
more  alcohol  than  the  wines  of  commerce, 
because  sugar  is  added  to  the  fermenting 
juices. 

Cider  and  these  home-made  wines  contain 
the  merest  trine  of  food-material,  and  are 
no  more  "innocent  drinks"  than  port  or 
champagne  (sham  panO.  The  poison,  alcohol,  is 
there,  ready  to  do  its  deadly  work. 

People  not  only  become  intoxicated  by 
drinking  these  wines ;  but,  by  their  use, 
a  craving  is  often  created  for  stronger 
drinks — that  is,  those  which  contain  more 
alcohol. 

By    drinking     a    larger     quantity    of    the 


80  ARE    NARCOTICS    FOODS? 

weaker  liquors,  tlie  user  gets  the  alcoliol  Ms 
increasing  appetite  demands.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  heer-drinkers. 

IS     CIDER     FOOD? 

Cider  is  a  fermented  drink  made  from  the 
juice  of  apples.  In  the  open  air,  at  summer 
heat,  apple-juice  begins  to  ferment  in  about 
six  hours  after  it  is  drawn  off  from  the  pulp, 
and  sometimes  sooner. 

A  little  juice  often  remains  in  the  cider- 
mill  after  a  previous  grinding.  If  this  fer- 
ments and  is  allowed  to  remain,  it  will  act 
as  yeast,  hastening  fermentation  in  the  juice 
of  the  next  lot  of  apples  ground. 

When  little  hubbies  begin  to  pass  through 
the  liquid  and  break  at  the  top,  as  the  froth 
gathers,  we  may  know  that  the  sugar  is 
turning  to  alcohol.  The  bubbles  are  the  es- 
caping carbonic  acid  gas. 

If  the  apples  are  fairly  sweet,  alcohol 
will  form  until  in  ten  cups  of  hard  cider, 
there  will  be  one  cup  of  pure  alcohol.  Thus 
the  barrel  of  cider  that  may  possibly  have 
been  sweet,  when  it  was  put  into  the  cellar, 


STIMULANTS.  81 

gains  in  alcohol  every  day,  until  it  begins  to 
turn  to  vinegar. 

Cider  is  mainly  water  and  alconol.  As 
the  latter  is  a  poison,  the  old  custom  of  con- 
sidering the  barrel  of  cider  as  important  a 
part  of  the  family  food  as  the  barrel  of  flour, 
had  no  truth  for  its  foundation. 

There  is  great  danger  that  the  cider- 
drinker  win  learn  to  crave  a  stronger  drink, 
because  alcohol  makes  those  who  drink  it 
thirsty  for  more.  Many  of  those  who  die 
as  drunkards  in  this  country,  began  their 
course  at  the  cider  barrel. 

If  the  people  who  drink  cider  for  its  acid 
taste  and  effect,  would  take  lemon  or  lime- 
juice  instead,  they  would  get  the  acid  with- 
out the  poison  of  alcohol. 

STIMULANTS. 

"Alcohol*    never    acts    as    any    thing    but 


*  Alcohol  has  been  falsely  called  a  stimulant,  because  it  some- 
times makes  the  person  who  takes  it  feel  stronger,  and  seem  more 
quick-witted  and  talkative,  for  a  short  time.  But  a  reaction  fol- 
lows, just  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  excitement  there  has 
been,  and  the  person  is  more  or  less  weak  and  depressed. 

"Whipping  a  horse  causes  him  to  move  faster  for  a  while ;  yet 
it  gives  no  fresh  strength  to  the  animal,  but  rather  uses  up  that 


82  ARE    NARCOTICS    FOODS? 

a  paralyzer." — Dr.  James  Edmunds.  "Alcohol  lias 
clearly  no  right  to  be  called  a  stimulant."— 
Dr.  J.  J.  Ridge. 

People  have  called  alcohol  a  stimulant, 
because  they  were  ignorant  of  its  real  na- 
ture. It  gives  the  body  no  added  strength; 
its  only  effect  on  pain  and  fatigue  is  the 
deadening  of  the  nerves,  so  that  one  does 
not  realize  the  disordered,  exhausted  condi- 
tion of  his  body.* 

The  apparent  increase  of  energy  which 
alcohol  gives,  is  due  to  the  partial  paralysis 
of  a  certain  class  of  nerves  in  the  body 
which  act  as  its  "brakes."  Alcohol,  there- 


which  he  already  possessed,  so  that  he  over-works  and  is  more 
tired  as  the  result.  Spurring  to  increased  action  without  giving 
any  food  which  the  body  can  use  to  balance  the  extra  "wear  and 
tear,"  is  not  the  action  of  a  true  stimulant,  and  the  term  is 
wrongly  used  when  thus  applied. 

*  Suppose,  for  instance,  you  measure  your  muscular  strength 
with  a  health-lift,  and  then  take  some  of  the  drink  which  you 
think  will  give  you  power.  When  you  feel  strong,  measure  your 
strength  again.  The  drink  has  fooled  you,  that  is  all.  You  felt 
that  you  were  stronger  than  natural ;  you  find  that  the  narcotic 
has  been  true  to  its  paralyzing  nature  and  that  you  are  weaker. 

Then,  after  a  time,  when  the  drug  has  spent  itself  and  you 
feel  weak  and  prostrated,  measure  your  strength  once  more.  Fooled 
again ;  the  stuff  has  fooled  you  twice.  When  you  felt  yourself 
strong,  you  were  weak  ;  and  now,  when  you  feel  yourself  weak, 
you  find  yourself  really  stronger,  for  your  natural  strength  is  re- 
turning.— Adapted  from  Dr.  A.  F.  Kinne. 


ALCOHOL    AND    WORK.  83 

fore,  is  not  a  stimulant  in   the   proper  sense 
of  that  word. 

ALCOHOL     AND      WORK. 

A  vessel  coming  from  Australia  sprung-  a 
leak  soon  after  starting,  and  trie  men  had  to 
work  at  the  pumps  all  the  way  home. 

At  first,  regular  rations  of  liquor  were 
given;  but  the  sailors  soon  "began  to  grow 
weak  and  tired.  Then  the  captain  stopped 
the  use  of  liquor,  giving  an  extra  supply 
of  food,  instead.  At  once,  the  men  began 
to  sleep  well  and  to  waken  strong  and 
rested. 

In  spite  of  the  hard  work  at  the  pumps, 
the  crew  -were  in  good  health  when  they 
reached  England.  The  liquor  deadened — nar- 
cotized— the  nerves  which  control  muscular 
action,  and  the  men  lost  strength  thereby; 
the  food  furnished  building  material  for 
their  bodies  and  so  increased'  their  working 
power. 

"  The  following  statement  was  made  by  Sir 
William  Fairbairn,  an  eminent  engineer  of 
Manchester,  England,  when  at  the  head  of  a 


84  ARE    NARCOTICS    FOODS? 

firm  employing-  between  one  and  two  thou- 
sand workmen : 

"'I  strictly  prohibit  on  my  works  the  use 
of  beer  or  fermented  liquors  of  any  sort,  or 
of  tobacco.  I  enforce  the  prohibition  of  al- 
coholic drinks  so  strongly,  that  if  I  found 
any  man  transgressing*  the  rule  in  that 
respect,  I  would  instantly  discharge  him.' 

"The  reasons  for  these  measures  are  thus 
stated : 

"'In  those  foundries  in  which  there  is 
drinking  throughout  the  works  all  day  long, 
it  is  observed  of  the  men  employed  as  work- 
men, that  they  do  not  work  so  well ;  their 
perceptions  are  clouded,  and  they  are  stupe- 
fied and  heavy. 

"'I  have  provided  water  for  the  use  of  the 
men  in  every  department  of  the  works.  In 
summer-time,  the  men  engaged  in  the  strong- 
est work,  such  as  strikers  to  the  heavy 
forges,  drink  water  very  copiously. 

" '  I  am  convinced  that  workmen  who 
drink  water  are  really  more  active  and  do 
more  work,  and  are  more  healthy  than  those 
who  drink  alcoholic  liquors.' 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS.  85 

"  Tliis  is  the  testimony  of  all  accurate  ob- 
servers."— Dr.  A.  B.  Palmer. 

Observation  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  shows 
us  — 

1st. — That  tlie  healthy  action  of  the  mus- 
cles is  hindered  by  the  useless  fat  formed 
through  the  influence  of  alcohol. 

2d.— That  the  nerves  are  deadened. 

'3d. — That  strength  is  lost  rather  than 
gained  by  the  drinking  of  alcoholic  liquors. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  does  a  perfect  food  contain  ? 

2.  Can  alcohol  do  the  work  of  any  of  the  three  classes  of  food? 

3.  How  does  it  act  to  make  one  fleshy? 

4.  How  does  it  affect  the  heat  of  the  body  ? 

5.  Compare  the  food-materials  in  beer  and  bread. 

6.  How  much  alcohol  is  there  in  lager-beer? 

7.  How  much  in  the  stronger  beers? 

8.  What  harm  may  this  do  to  the  drinker  ? 

9.  How  is  wine  made  ? 

10.  Do  "home-made  wines"  contain  alcohol? 

11.  Are  they  nourishing? 

12.  How  is  cider  made  ? 

13.  How  much  alcohol  is  there  in  hard  cider? 

14.  Is  cider  food? 

15.  Why  do  cider-drinkers  often  become  drunkards? 

16.  What  acids  are  more  healthful  than  cider? 

17.  Why  has  alcohol  been  called  a  stimulant? 

18.  What  is  its  effect  on  pain  and  fatigue? 

19.  How  does  it  seem  to  increase  one's  energy? 


86  REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 


20.  "Why  is  alcohol  not  a  true  stimulant? 

21.  Does  alcohol  give  strength  for  work  ?     Illustrate. 

22.  Give   Sir  Wm.  Fairbairn's    statements    in   regard   to  the    use   of 

alcohol  and  tobacco  by  the  men  in  his  workshops. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

1.  What  kind  of  meat  are  the  muscles  called? 

2.  Show  how  the  size  of  the  muscles  affects  one's  strength. 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  disuse  upon  a  muscle  ? 

4.  How  does  variety  of  exercise  affect  the  muscles? 

5.  What  are  the  best  times  for  exercise  ? 

6.  How  does  an  increase  of  fat  sometimes  affect  the  heart? 


CHAPTER      X. 

DIGESTION. 

TJNGrER  and  thirst  are  cries  of  the  whole 
"body  for  food  and  water,  though  only 
the  throat  seems  to  call  for  the  water  and 
the  stomach  for  the  food. 

Digestion  is  the  preparation  of  the  food 
which  has  "been  taken  into  the  stomach,  for 
the  use  of  the  body. 

Many  wonderful  changes  must  take  place, 
before  the  beef,  potatoes,  bread,  water,  and 
other  food  which  we  eat,  can  become  solid 
bone  and  liquid  blood,  strong  muscle,  work- 
ing hand,  and  thinking  brain. 

WASTE     AND     REPAIR. 

Tearing  down,  and  building  up— making 
and  unmaking— these  two  processes  are  al- 
ways going  on  within  us. 

If  you  stand  by  a  city  market,  early  on 
a  summer  morning,  you  may  see  carts  bring- 


88  DIGESTION. 

ing  green  peas,  fresh  meat,  milk,  and  otlier 
food,  from  the  country  farms.  Other  carts, 
at  the  same  time,  are  carrying  off  barrels 
of  ashes,  bones,  scraps  of  food,  and  other 
waste  matter.  They  will  dump  this  stuff  far 
enough  from  the  city  to  prevent  any  harm 
to  the  people  from  its  decay. 

Work  very  much  like  this  goes  on  in 
your  body.  There  are  certain  vessels  whose 
special  duty  it  is  to  carry  the  prepared  food 
to  the  different  organs,  and  others  that  are 
the  scavengers  of  the  human  system. 

If  you  should  stop  eating,  you  would 
starve  to  death  in  a  short  time ;  if  you 
should  keep  the  waste  matter  in  your  body, 
instead  of  letting  it  pass  out  through  the 
skin,  lungs,  kidneys,  and  other  organs,  you 
would  die  even  more  quickly. 

ORGANS     OF     DIGESTION. 

The  principal  organs  of  digestion  are  the 
mouth,  gullet  or  esophagus  (e  s6ph'a 
stomach  (st6m/a«^),  and  intestines  (in  te 
Taken  together,  these  are  often  called  the 
food-canal. 


THE    TEETH. 


89 


FIG.  13. 


This  canal,  in  a  full-grown  person,  is  about 
thirty  feet  long.  Here  and  there,  beside  it,  are 
little  fleshy  bags  called  glands;  these  glands 
have  the  curious  power  of  separating  cer- 
tain juices  from  the  blood ; 
this  is  called  secretion 

(se  -ere'tion). 

It  is  these  juices  which 
digest  the  food.  A  tongue 
much  coated  shows  that 
other  portions  of  the  food- 
canal,  as  well  as  the  part 
which  we  can  see,  are  out 
of  order. 

THE     TEETH. 

The  mouth,  with  its 
fixed  roof  and  movable 
floor,  takes  in  the  food; 
the  tongue,  cheeks,  and 

The    stomach   and    intestines.    1, 

jaWS,     move     it      backward     stomach;  3,  miall  intestine ;  7,8,9. 

10,  large  intestine. 

and      forward,      up       and 

down ;  the  teeth  cut  and  grind  it.  This 
should  be  well  done,  because  the  digestive 
juices  can  not  mix  quickly  or  properly  with 


90 


DIGESTION. 


lumps    of  food. 


Fia.  14. 


A  child  lias  twenty  teeth; 
these  last  for  a  few 
years,  and  are  then 
pushed  out  by  the 
growth  of  others  he- 
hind  them.  This  sec- 
ond set  numbers  thirty- 
two  in  all— sixteen  in 


The  teeth  at  the  age  of  six  ana  one-half    each 
years.    I,  the  cutting  teeth ;  M,  the  grind- 
ing teeth ;  F,  C,  B,  N,  the  new  or  second  TllOSC 
set  of  teeth. 

sharp     and     of    use 


Ill 


biting. 


front    are 
in 
The   back   teeth    are    broad    and    are 

FIG.  15. 


Different  kinds  of  teeth. 

much    used    in    chewing ;    they   are    fastened 


CARE     OF     THE     TEETH. 


91 


into   the   jaws    by  two    or  three    roots,    while 
the  front  teeth  have  each  but  one  root. 

The  bone  of  a  tooth  is  covered  with  a 
hard,  smooth  coating1,  called  enamel  (en  am'ei), 
which  protects  it.  If  this  enamel  is  broken  in 
any  way,  the  teeth  are  likely  FlG- 

to  decay  and  to  cause  a  great 
deal  of  trouble   and  pain. 

CARE     OF     THE     TEETH. 

If  you  wish  to  have  g*ood 
teeth  and  to  escape  the  pains 
of  toothache  —  brush  your 
teeth  after  each  meal,  and 

pick  them,  if  lieceSSary  to  re-  Vertical  section  of  a  molar 

tooth,  moderately  magnified. 

mOVe  particles  Of  fOOCl,  Wltll  a  a,  enamel  of  the  crown,  the 

lines  of  which  indicate  the 

quill  Or  WOOdeil  tooth-pick —  arrangement  of  its  columns  ; 

b,  dentine;  c,  cement;  d, 

never  with  a  pin,  lest  you  break  wto  camty. 
the  enamel.  For  the  same  reason,  never  use 
the  teeth  to  crack  nuts  or  bite  thread.  "Better 
to  take  pains  than  to  have  pains  take  you." 
It  is  very  "warm  in  the  mouth — nearly 
100°  by  the  thermometer,  as  warm  as  the  air 
on  a  hot  July  day.  At  that  temperature,  a 
piece  of  meat  would  spoil  in  twenty-four  hours. 


92 


DIGESTION. 


If  we  eat  meat,  therefore,  tlie  little  pieces 
which  get  between  our  teeth,  if  not  re- 
moved, will  soon,  begin  to  decay  in  this 
warm  place,  and  so  injure  the  teeth  and 
gums. 


THE      SALIVARY      GLANDS. 

Three   pairs    of   glands — one    near    and   be- 
FM}-  17-  low    the     ears,*    one 

pair  under  the 
tongue,  and  one  pair 
under  the  lower  jaw 
— aided  by  other  very 
small  glands  that 
line  the  inside  of  the 
cheeks,  pour  out  a 

The  parotid— one  of  the  salivary  glands.        juice        Called        Saliva 

(sa  irva),    which    not    only   moistens   the    food, 
but  transforms  some  of  its  starch  into  sugar. 

This  is  the  first  of  the  great  changes 
which  take  place  in  food  during  the  process 
of  digestion.  You  will  see  how  important 


*  It    is  the  glands  under  the  ears  — the  parotid  (pa  rbt' id)  glands  — 
that  swell  and  are  so  painful  when  one  has  the  mumps. 


THE     SALIVARY     GLANDS.  93 

it  is  that  tlie  work  of  tlie  saliva  should  be 
thoroughly  done,  when  you  remember  that 
unchanged  starch  does  not  nourish  the  "body ; 
if  not  changed  in  the  mouth,  it  must  "be 
changed,  but  "with  more  difficulty,  elsewhere 
in  the  food-canal. 

"Washing  down  the  food,"  even  -with  pure 
water,  will  not  take  the  place  of  slow  eating, 
by  Avhich  the  starch  is  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  saliva  and.  thus  changed  to  sugar. 
Water  simply  moistens  the  food  so  that  it 
can  be  more  easily  swallowed. 

If  the  work  of  the  mouth  is  but  partly 
clone,  as  by  rapid  eating,  the  other  organs 
have  more  than  their  share  to  do  ;  they  may 
soon  break  down,  and  their  owner  suffers 
from  dyspepsia  (d^s  pgp'  si  a),  or  some  similar 
disease. 

You  may  prove  that  starch  is  changed  to 
sugar  in  the  mouth,  by  ch'ewing  slowly  a 
piece  of  dry  cracker  and  noticing  how  sweet 
it  tastes. 

To  say  that  "the  mouth  "waters,"  is  often 
exactly  true.  When  we  think  of  some  favor- 
ite food,  especially  if  hungry,  the  glands  may 


94  DIGESTION. 

send  an  extra  amount  of  saliva  into  the 
mouth,  as  if  the  food  was  there  ready  for 
its  action. 

TOBACCO     AND     THE     MOUTH. 

Sores  on  the  lips,  and  even  cancers,  some- 
times result  from  the  use  of  tobacco ;  the 
breath,  foul  and  repulsive,  shows  the  condi- 
tion of  the  stomach,  the  tissues,  and  the 
blood ;  the  gums  of  smokers  and  chewers  often 
become  spongy,  and  their  teeth  are  soiled 
and  dark,  instead  of  being  white  and  pure. 

The  effect  of  the  poison  is  to  make  the 
mouth  dry,  thus  causing  an  extra  amount 
of  saliva  to  be  poured  out  from  the  glands. 
But  the  constant  spitting  of  the  tobacco 
juice,  robs  one  of  the  saliva  needed  for  diges- 
tion, and  thus  brings  on  dyspepsia. 

Besides  doing  this  harm  to  the  user,  the 
habit  of  spitting  is  a  very  impolite  one.  It 
makes  floors  and  sidewalks  unfit  for  cleanly 
people  to  walk  on,  and  endangers  the  cloth- 
ing of  all  who  are  near. 

A  man  who  should  spit  directly  at  another 
would  be  thought  very  insulting.  Is  he  re- 


THE    ESOPHAGUS.  95 

specting  tlie  rights  of  others,  though  he  may 
not  intend  to  insult  them,  when  he  sends 
the  foul  juice  a  little  to  one  side  — or  where 
they  must  tread  at  the  next  step  ? 

In  many  cases,  tobacco  acts  as  the  usher 
at  the  door  of  the  saloon,  "because  the  dry- 
ness  of  the  mouth  -which  it  produces,  makes 
the  user  thirsty.  But  it  is  not  a  natural 
thirst,— it  can  not  be  satisfied  by  water;  for 
tobacco  so  affects  the  nerves,  as  often  to  make 
one  crave  another  narcotic. 

Those  in  charge  of  inebriate  asylums  say 
that  nearly  all  their  patients  have  been  users 
of  tobacco  as  well  as  of  alcohol. 

THE      ESOPHAGUS. 

When  divided  by  the  teeth  and  softened 
and  changed  by  the  saliva,  the  food  is  ready 
to  be  swallowed,  or  sent  into  the  esophagus, 
the  passage-way  to  the  stomach. 

Look  at  the  throat  of  a  horse  when  he 
is  drinking,  and  you  will  see  the  motion  of 
the  ring-shaped  muscles  of  this  tube. 

Food  and  drink  do  not  simply  slide  down 
the  esophagus  ;  a  horse  often  bends  his  head 


96  DIGESTION. 

when  he  drinks,  so  that  his  mouth  is  really 
lower  than  his  stomach. 

The  muscles  contract,  one  after  the  other, 
and  push  the  food  gently  onward.  For  this 
reason,  a  juggler  is  able  to  perform  the  com- 
mon trick  of  drinking  a  glass  of  water,  while 
standing  on  his  head. 

THE     STOMACH. 

The  stomach  is  a  strong  muscular  bag  in 
the  left  side  of  the  abdomen  (ab  do'  men).  Its 
inner  lining  has  many  glands  which  separate 
from  the  blood  a  juice,  called  gastric  juice. 
In  this  is  a  substance  named  pepsin  (pgp'sin), 
which  digests  the  flesh-making  parts  of  our 
food. 

The  next  coat  contains  muscular  fibers. 
These  stretch  and  shrink  in  such  a  way, 
that  the  food  is  gently  moved  from  one  end 
of  the  stomach  to  the  other,  and  so  forced 
to  mix  with  the  gastric  juice. 

Some  parts  of  the  food  are  ready  for  use 
when  they  enter  the  stomach.  These  are  at 
once  taken  up  by  tiny  blood-vessels,  carried  to 
the  liver,  and  then  to  the  heart.  The  process 


THE     INTESTINES.  97 

by  which.   food-materials    enter   the   blood,  is 
called  absorption  (ab  sdrp'shttn). 

When  the  work  of  the  stomach  is  ended, 
the  food  which  is  left  is  a  grayish  fluid, 
called  chyme  (kim.)  It  consists  largely  of  the 
tissue-making:  substances,  and  the  fats  that 
have  been  eaten.  A  part  of  the  starch  and 
sugar,  after  being  prepared  in  the  mouth,  has 
already  entered  the  blood. 

THE      INTESTINES. 

This  part  "of  the  food-canal  is  a  small 
tube,  about  twenty-five  feet  long  in  an  adult, 
coiled  very  closely  in  the  abdomen.  You 
will  understand  it  better  by  looking  at  the 
intestines  of  a  chicken,  when  the  cook  is 
"  drawing "  it  in  the  kitchen. 

Much  remains  to  be  done  before  the 
chyme  is  ready  to  enter  the  blood.  The 
glands  of  the  intestines  are  helped  by  two 
other  glands  which  lie  in  the*  abdomen,  one 
on  the  right  side  of  the  body— the  liver, 
and  the  other  toward  the  left — the  pancreas 

(pan' -ere  as). 

These  send  into  the  intestines,  through  a 


98  DIGESTION. 

small  tube,  tlie  bile  and  the  pancreatic 
(pan-ereat/i-e)  juice,  which,  with  the  intestinal 
juices,  divide  and  prepare  the  fats. 

If  the  mouth,  or  the  stomach,  has  failed 
in  any  part  of  its  work,  these  juices  in  the 
intestines  do  their  best  to  .complete  the 
task.  They  can  often  do  but  little,  however, 
and  so  we  may  lose  part  of  the  value  of  the 
food. 

When  fully  digested,  the  milky  mass  is 
called  chyle  (kii),  and  is  ready  to  enter  the 
blood.  It  does  this  by  soaking-  through  the 
thin  walls  of  blood-vessels  and  tiny  tubes 
called  lacteals  (la-e' teals). 

STEPS     OF      DIGESTION. 

In  a  large  factory,  each  man  has  a  special 
task  to  perform ;  the  spinners  do  not  attend 
to  the  looms,  the  weavers  have  nothing  to 
do  in  the  engine-room.  So  in  the  body,  each 
part  has  its  own  work. 

The  saliva,  to  an  extent,  digests  the 
starch  foods.  The  gastric  juice  digests  the 
tissue-making  foods.  The  bile  and  pancreatic 
juice  digest  the  fats. 


MEALS.  99 

If  one  must  eat  rapidly,  as  at  a  railroad 
station,  trie  meal  should  be  mainly  of  meat, 
as  that  will  give  strength  and  need  not  be 
mixed  with  the  saliva  for  digestion. 

The  heat  of  the  stomach  must  be  over 
100°,  in  order  to  digest  the  food  properly. 
Ice-water  at  once  lowers  the  temperature : 
if  taken  too  freely  at  meals,  the  stomach 
must  stop  working  until  it  can  get  "  warmed 
up "  again.  Such  delays  in  the  process  of 
digestion  are  injurious. 

MEALS. 

Most  healthy  persons  have  three  meals  a 
day,  at  intervals  of  five  or  six  hours.  Since 
the  stomach,  like  other  muscles,  needs  rest, 
one  should  not  eat  between  meals.  The  mind 
either  helps  or  hinders  the  body:  the  food 
digests  much  more  readily  if  there  is  pleasant, 
cheerful  thought  and  talk  at  the  table. 

An  old  Eastern  story  tells  of  a  stranger 
who  met  the  Plague  coming  from  Bagdad. 

"  You  have  been  committing  great  havoc 
there,"  said  the  trader,  pointing  to  the  city. 

"Not    so    great,"   replied    the   Plague;     "I 


100  DIGESTION. 

killed  only  one-third  of  those  who  died ;  the 
other  two -thirds  killed  themselves  with 
fright." 

ALCOHOL  AND  THE   STOMACH. 

As  soon  as  alcohol  enters  this  organ,  it 
is  hurried  on  into  the  "blood-vessels ;  for  the 
stomach  knows  it  can  not  be  digested,  and  is 
useless  to  the  body.  But  the  very  short  time 
it  stays  there,  is  enough  to  cause  great  harm. 

It  can  not  pass  through  the  thin  walls 
of  the  blood-vessels  unless  mixed  with  water. 
It  needs  even  more  water  than  was  con- 
tained in  the  liquors  which  were  drunk ; 
so  it  shrinks  and  thickens  the  delicate  lining 
of  the  stomach,  by  robbing  it  of  its  moist- 
ure. In  health,  this  lining  is  slightly  red, 
tinged  with  yellow. 

The  blood  does  not  move  properly,  or  as 
it  should,  in  the  blood-vessels  of  even  the 
"  moderate  drinker,"  and  those  in  the  stomach 
soon  become  swollen.  In  the  drunkard,  the 
case  is  likely  to  be  still  worse;  for  sores 
sometimes  appear  on  the  walls  of  the  stomach. 
If  one  stops  drinking  liquors  which  contain 


ALCOHOL    AND    THE     STOMACH.  101 

alcohol,  these  will  be  cured.  They  do  not 
pain  the  drinker  as  they  would  if  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  hody,  for  reasons  which  you  will 
understand  when  you  study  the  nerves. 

Sickness,  thirst,  headache,  coated  tongue, 
feverish  pulse,  go  with  these  conditions  of 
the  stomach.  The  only  possible  cure  is  to 
stop  drinking  liquor  at  once  and  forever. 

There  is  enough  alcohol  in  strong  spirits 
to  harden  the  tissue-making  foods,  -which 
must  be  changed  to  a  liquid  form  in  the 
stomach,  before  they  can  be  absorbed. 

Alcohol,  of  any  considerable  strength,  sepa- 
rates the  pepsin  from  the  gastric  juice  and 
prevents  its  proper  action  on  the  food. 

Dr.  Munroe,  of  England,  proved  this  by 
an  interesting  experiment.  He  put  equal 
quantities  of  finely-minced  beef  into  three 
bottles.  Then  into  one,  he  poured  water  and 
gastric  juice  from  the  stomach  of  a  calf; 
into  another,  alcohol  with  gas'tric  juice ;  and 
into  the  third,  pale  ale  and  gastric  juice. 

The  bottles  were  kept  at  the  same  heat 
as  the  human  stomach,  and  the  contents 
moved  about  like  those  of  that  organ. 


102 


DIGESTION. 


The  following  table  shows  the  results  : 


Finely-minced 
Beef. 

3d  Hour. 

Uh  Hour. 

6th  Hour. 

8th,  Hour. 

10th  Hour. 

1st.  Bottle. 

Q-astric  juice 

Beef    be- 

Beef sep- 

Beef much 

Beef  broken 

Beef  dis- 

and water. 

comes 

arating. 

less  in 

into  shreds. 

solved  as  in 

opaque. 

quantity. 

soup. 

2d.  Bottle. 

Gastric  juice 

No 

No 

Slight 

No  change. 

Beef  solid 

and  alcohol. 

change. 

change. 

coating  on 

on    cooling. 

beef. 

Pepsin   sep- 

arated from 

the     gastric 

3d.  Bottle. 

juice. 

Gastric  juice 

No 

Cloudy 

Beef   partly 

No  change. 

Beef  not  di- 

and ale. 

change. 

with 

loosened. 

gested.  Pep- 

coating 

sin    separa- 

on beef. 

ted  from 

bhe    gastric 

juice. 

Study  this  table  carefully,  and  see  how  the 
clear  alcohol  and  that  in  the  ale,  destroyed 
the  power  of  the  gastric  juice,  by  taking  out 
the  pepsin  from  it.  It  often  has  a  similar 
effect  on  that  in  the  stomach,  though  it 
remains  there  but  a  short  time. 

SEEING     DIGESTION. 

By  this  time  you  wonder,  perhaps,  how 
all  these  things  are  known,  "when  the  stom- 
ach is  covered  up  in  our  bodies. 


TOBACCO    AND    THE    STOMACH.  103 

Some  of  them  tlie  doctors  have  learned 
by  studying  the  stomachs  of  dead  persons. 
But  there  has  "been  one  good  chance  to  look 
into  a  live  man's  stomach  and  see  what  was 
going  on  there. 

In  1822,  a  man  named  Alexis  St.  Martin, 
was  shot  in  his  left  side.  When  the  wound 
healed,  it  left  a  hole  in  his  stomach,  partly 
closed  by  a  fold  of  the  inner  lining.  This 
could  be  pushed  aside,  so  that  one  could  look 
directly  into  the  stomach. 

By  this  means,  the  doctor  who  had  charge 
of  him,  learned  much  about  the  digestion  of 
food,  and  the  effects  of  alcohol  upon  the 
stomach.  Later  experiments  upon  the  stom- 
achs of  living  men  and  of  the  lower  animals, 
have  taught  us  much  more  on  this  sub- 
ject. 

TOBAC'CO  AND  THE  STOMACH. 

As  already  said,  the  nicotine  of  tobacco  is 
almost  sure  to  cause  sickness  of  the  stomach 
and  vomiting,  in  those  who  are  just  begin- 
ning to  use  the  poison.  It  injures  the  lining 
of  the  stomach,  hinders  the  flow  of  the  gas- 


104  DIGESTION. 

trie  juice,  and,  in  this  manner,  seriously  inter- 
feres with  digestion. 

Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson  says :  "  One  who 
smokes  a  pipe  is  very  likely  to  have  dys- 
pepsia." 

OPIUM,   CHLORAL,  AND  THE  STOMACH. 

The  stomach  of  the  opium-eater,  and  of 
the  user  of  chloral,  soon  has  its  digestive 
power  impaired. 

OTHER     ORGANS     OF     THE     ABDOMEN. 
THE      LIVER. 

This  is  the  largest  organ  in  the  "body  and 
one  of  the  most  important.  It  fills  the  whole 
of  the  right  and  upper  side  of  the  abdomen. 
One  part  of  its  work  is  to  secrete  the  bile, 
or  gall,  used  in  digestion. 

This  juice,  when  not  needed,  is  stored  in 
a  little  sac,  called  the  gall-bladder.  It  is  of 
a  dark  yellow  color,  and  " bitter  as  gall"  is 
a  common  proverb. 

The  liver  also  changes,  in  some  way  not 
clearly  understood,  the  chyme  brought  to  it 


ALCOHOL    AND    THE    LIVER.  105 

from  the  stomach.,  aids  in  the  manufacture 
of  blood,  and  in  the  preparation  of  worn- 
out  materials  for  removal  from  the  body. 

ALCOHOL     AND     THE     LIVER. 

While  we  can  not  fully  explain  all  its  ac- 
tion, we  know  that  diseases  of  the  liver  affect 
all  the  other  organs. 

More  alcohol  goes  to  the  liver  and  "brain 
than  to  any  other  parts  of  the  body.  By  it, 
the  gall  may  "be  changed  from  yellow  to 
green  or  black,  and  from  a  thin  fluid  to  a 
thick  one. 

The  liver  itself  often  becomes  twice  its 
natural  size ;  in  other  cases,  it  is  filled  "with 
'useless  fat,  like  the.  muscles.  "When  rough 
and  shrunken,  with  hard  lumps  or  knots,  it 
is  called  by  the  English,  "  hob-nailed,"  or 
''gin  liver."  This  condition  is  caused  only 
by  alcohol  and  is  incurable. 

The  coal-heavers  of  London  drink  a  great 
deal  of  gin,  whiskey,  and  ale.  They  seem 

strong,  but   they  often    sicken   and    die   from 

« 

a  mere  scratch.  Their  blood  is  so  poisoned 
from  their  diseased  livers  that  the  wound 


L06  DIGESTION. 

festers,  does  not  readily  heal,  and  frequently 
proves  fatal. 

THE      KIDNEYS. 

These  are  two  oval  glands  at  the  back  of 
the  abdomen,  that  carry  a  large  part  of  the 
waste  matter  out  of  the  "body. 

ALCOHOL  AND  THE   KIDNEYS. 

A  serious,  "because  usually  fatal,  sickness, 
is  called  "  Bright's  disease  of  the  kidneys." 
This  may  he  caused  in  many  ways ;  "but  it 
is  most  often  the  result  of  alcoholic  drinks, 
especially  if  combined  with  exposure  to  wet 
and  cold. 

"  Water  supplies  every  necessity  as  a  fluid 
for  the  body."* 

Alcohol  robs  the  body  of  water  and  can 
not  be  used  by  it  as  a  fluid. 

Water  dissolves  other  foods. 

Alcohol  hardens  tissue-making  foods,  and 
has  no  power  to  dissolve  any  of  the  food- 
materials. 

Water  helps  the  digestive  juices.          * 

Alcohol  separates    pepsin    from   the   gastric 

*  Dr.  B.  "W.  Richardson. 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS.  107 

juice,  coagulates  it,  and  thus  interferes  with 
digestion. 

Water  carries  trie  digested  foods  into  the 
blood. 

Alcohol  hinders  the  digested  foods  from 
entering  the  blood. 

Water  is  the  proper  liquid  of  the  blood. 

Alcohol  is  injurious  to  the  blood. 

Water  satisfies  our  thirst. 

Alcohol  does  not  satisfy  thirst,  but  creates 
a  strong  craving  for  itself. 

Water,  taken  in  proper  quantities,  is  a 
healthful  food. 

Alcohol,  taken  in  any  quantity,  injures  the 
body  in  proportion  to  the  amount  taken. 


REVIEW-      QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  digestion? 

2.  What  two  kinds  of  work  go  on  in  the  body? 

3.  What  would  happen  if  you  were  to  stop  taking  food?— if  you 

should  prevent  the  waste  matter  from  leaving  your  body? 

4.  Why  is  a  child's  face  plump,  and  an  old  man's  wrinkled  V 

5.  Name  the  organs  of  digestion. 

6.  What  are  glands,  and  what  is  their  work  ? 

7.  How  many  teeth  has  a  child?  — an  adult? 

8.  Describe  the  teeth. 

9.  How  should  the  teeth  be  taken  care  of? 
10.  Where  are  the  salivary  glands  ? 


108  DIGESTION. 


11.  What  is  the  action  of  the  saliva  on  the  food? 

12.  Prove  that  starch  may  be  changed  to  sugar  in  the  mouth. 

13.  "What  are  the  effects  of  tobacco  on  the  mouth  ? 

14.  What  do  you  think  of  the  habit  of  spitting? 

15.  What  is  the  relation  of  tobacco  to  alcohol  ? 

16.  How  do  we  swallow  our  food  ? 

17.  Describe  the  stomach.     Name  its  digestive  juice. 

18.  What  is  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  on  the  food? 

19.  What  is  absorption? 

20.  What  kinds  of  food  enter  the  blood  from  the  stomach? 

21.  Describe  the  intestines. 

22.  What   juices   mix  with   the   partly-digested  food   in   the  intes 

tines  ? 

23.  What  is  their  action  on  the  food  ? 

24:.   How  does  the  chyle  enter  the  blood-vessels  and  lacteals? 

25.  State  the  steps  of  digestion. 

26.  If  obliged  to  eat  in  haste,  what  food  would  you  choose?     Why  V 

27.  What  is  the  effect  of  drinking  large  quantities  of  ice-water  ? 

28.  How  often  should  one  eat? 

29.  Why  should  the  meal-time  be  made  a  pleasant  time  ? 

30.  How  does  alcohol  often  affect  the  walls  of  the  stomach  ? 

31.  What  is  its  effect  on  the  gastric  juice  ?    Illustrate  by  Dr.  Mon- 

roe's experiment. 

32.  Give  the  story  of  Alexis  St.  Martin. 

33.  What    are    the    effects    of   tobacco,    opium,    and    chloral   on   the 

stomach  ? 


OTHER     OBG-ANS      OF      THE      ABDOMEN. 

34.  Describe  the  liver;  — the  gall. 

35.  What  are  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  liver  and  gall? 

36.  What  is  the  "gin  liver"? 

37.  Why  are  slight  wounds  often  dangerous  to  drinking  men? 

38.  What  is  a  common  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  kidneys? 

39.  Contrast  the  effects  of  water  and  alcohol. 


CHAPTEE      XI. 

RESPIRATION. 
INSPIRATION     AND     EXPIRATION. 

>LACE  your  hands  firmly  against  your 
sides,  and  draw  long-,  deep  breaths.  No- 
tice that  the  side  walls  of  your  chest  are 
not  fixed,  Ibut  move  out  and  in,  as  you 
breathe,  about  eighteen  times  a  minute. 

Hold  your  hand  close  before  your  face, 
and  you  will  feel  a  current  of  air  upon  it, 
as  the  ribs  move  in.  Breathe  upon  a  mirror, 
and  a  thin  film  of  water  covers  it,  coming 
from  your  breath.  On  a  cold  winter  day,  this 
partly  freezes,  and  you  say  ,you  can  "  see 
your  breath." 

The  diaphragm  is  a  strong  muscle  which 
forms  the  partition  between  the  chest  and 
the  abdomen.  When  the  ribs  move  out- 
ward, this  moves  downward,  and  air  enters 


110 


RESPIRATION. 


your  cliest  through,  the  organs  of  breathing; 
this  is  called  inspiration  (inspira'tion). 

When   the   ribs   move  hack  into   position, 
and   the    diaphragm    moves   upward,   the    air 


lie.  18. 


The  lungs,  showing  the  larynx.  A,  the  windpipe ;  B,  the  bronchial  tubes. 

is  forced  out,  bringing  with  it  water  and 
other  waste  material;  this  is  called  expira- 
tion (Sx  pi  ra'tion).  Taken  together,  these  make 
up  breathing  or  respiration  (res  pi  ra' tion). 


LARYNX    AND    WINDPIPE.  Ill 

ORGANS     OF     BREATHING. 

The  organs  of  breathing-  are  the  nose  and 
mouth,  through  which  air  enters  the  body, 
the  larynx  (iar'  ^nx),  windpipe,  bronchial  (br6n'- 
kiai)  tubes,  and  lungs. 

LARYNX     AND     WINDPIPE. 

From  the  back  of  the  mouth,  the  air 
passes  down  a  straight  tube  at  the  front  of 
the  chest,  called  the  windpipe  or  trachea  (tra'- 
ke&).  This  is  made  of  ring-shaped  cartilages 
and  is  easily  felt  through  the  skin  of  the 
neck.  Its  upper  end  is  the  larynx,  the  organ 
of  voice. 

The  larynx  swells  out  at  the  front,  is 
larger  in  men  than  in  women,  and  is  some- 
times called,  "Adam's  apple."  It  is  a  tube- 
like  box,  formed  by  the  union  of  gristly 
and  elastic  parts,  and  is  covered  by  a  mov- 
able lid,  called  the  epiglottis  (£p  i  giat'tis).  This 
is  open  when  we  breathe,  so  that  the  air 
can  enter.  When  we  swallow,  the  epiglottis 
closes  the  entrance  to  the  windpipe,  and  the 
food  passes  across  it  to  the  esophagus. 


112  RESPIRATION. 

Sometimes,  we  try  to  swallow  and  breathe 
at  the  same  time ;  then  this  little  cover  does 
not  shut  down  quickly  enough  to  prevent 
particles  of  food  or  drink  from  going  "the 
wrong  way."  The  windpipe  can  not  bear 
this  and  coughs  them  out '  at  once,  if  possi- 
ble; if  not,  we  are  "choked." 

VOCAL     CORDS. 

We  speak  by  means  of  the  air  moving 
strong  bands  of  membrane,  called  vocal  cords, 
which  are  at  the  top  of  the  larynx.  The  lips, 
teeth,  and  other  organs,  help  us  in  talking. 

BRONCHIAL  TUBES  AND  LUNGS. 

The  lower  end  of  the  trachea  separates 
into  two  branches,  one  of  which  is  sent  to 
each  lung;  these  branches  are  the  bronchial 
tubes. 

These  tubes  divide  and  divide  again,  as 
the  branch  of  a  tree  breaks  up  into  smaller 
twigs.  They  end  in  very  small  sacs,  or  cells, 
into  which  the  air  passes. 

Get  a  piece  of  a  lung  of  an  ox  from  the 
butcher,  and  put  it  into  a  pail  of  water. 


THE     CILIA. 


113 


Its  little    cells   are  so  filled  with,  air  tliat  it 
floats  like  cork. 


FIG.  19. 


Interweaving  of  the  air-tubes  and  blood-vessels  in  the  Inngs. 


a.  Windpipe. 

b,  c.  Right  and  left  lung. 

d.  Heart. 

e,  e.  Divisions  of  the  great  air-tubes 
going   to  the  right  lung  and  the  left 
lung. 


f,  f .  Arteries  carrying  the  blood  from 
the  heart  to  the  lungs. 

g,  g.    Veins,  carrying  the  blood  from 
the  lungs  to  the  heart. 

h,  h,  h,  h.  Air-cells  at  the  termina- 
tions of  the  air-tubes. 


THE     CILIA. 

On  tlie  walls  of  the  "bronchial  tubes  are 
minute,  thread-like  bodies,  called  cilia  (?n'ia). 
These  move  back  and  forth,  and  help  to 
prevent  dust  from  entering  the  lungs  with 


114  RESPIRATION. 

the  air,  and  to  carry  it  out  with  the  mucus 
(mu'-etis)  when  it  does  get  in. 

WORK     OF     THE     LUNGS. 

A  network  of  tiny  "blood-vessels,  or  capil- 
laries (cap'  ii  la  riz)  covers  the  outside  of  the 
lung-cells.  Having  thin  walls  like  the  cells, 
the  blood  which  they  carry  is  brought  close 
to  the  air  in  the  lungs.  By  this  means,  a 
strange  and  important  change  takes  place. 

Certain  waste  matters,  including  carbonic 
acid  and  water,  pass  from  the  blood  through 
the  walls  of  the  capillaries  and  lung-cells, 
into  the  air,  and  are  breathed  out  at  the 
next  expiration.  At  the  same  time,  the  blood 
takes  a  part  of  the  air,  called  oxygen  (6x'ij5n), 
which  it  needs  for  its  own  use. 

It  is  this  exchange  of  impurities  for  oxy- 
gen, that  changes  the  dark,  blue  blood  that 
was  sent  to  the  lungs  from  one  side  of  the 
heart,  to  the  bright  red  blood  that  is  ready 
to  nourish  the  body,  and  is  returned  to  the 
other  side  of  the  heart,  from  which  it  is 
sent  out  by  the  arteries. 

This  work  goes  on  all  the  time,  whether  we 


HYGIENE    OF    BREATHING.  115 

are  awake  or  asleep,  and  without  our  thought. 
If,  in  order  to  breathe,  we  had  to  think 
about  it,  we  should  have  little  time  for 
any  thing  else ;  and  if  -we  forgot  it,  and  so 
stopped  breathing,  we  should  soon  die. 

HOW     TO     BREATHE. 

Air  should  enter  the  lungs  through  the 
nose  instead  of  through  the  mouth.  Even 
when  running,  if  possible,  keep  the  mouth 
closed.  Fewer  impurities  will  pass  into  the 
lungs  by  so  doing,  and  in  cold  weather  the 
air  is  slightly  warmed  before  reaching  them, 
making  one  less  likely  to  "take  co]d." 

Sometimes,  as  in  running,  the  heart  beats 
so  rapidly  that  the  lungs  can  not  keep  up 
with  it  and  supply  air  enough  for  the  blood; 
then  we  are  "out  of  breath." 

HYGIENE     OF     BREATHING. 

As  the  muscular  walls  of  the  chest  and 
abdomen  help  in  the  act  of  breathing,  noth- 
ing should  prevent  their  free  movement. 

For  this  reason,  garments  worn  about  the 
waist,  such  as  corsets  and  belts,  should  nevei 


116 


RESPIRATION. 


be  tight.  Tliey  are  sure  to  do  liarm  "by 
crowding  the  lungs,  thus  partly  stopping  the 
breath,  and  by  pressing  out  of  place  the  or- 
gans of  the  abdomen. 


PIG.  20. 


A,  the  natural  position  of  the  internal  organs.  B,  when  deformed  by  tight  lacing. 
In  this  way  the  liver  and  the  stomach  have  been  forced  downward,  as  seen  in  the 
cut. 

Among  the  many  causes  of  consumption  is 
tight  lacing.  A  small,  pinched  waist  shows 
that  its  owner  is  either  ignorant  or  foolish — 
perhaps  both. 


DISEASES.  117 

The  weight  of  tlie  clothing  should  not 
rest  on  the  hips,  pressing-  the  muscles  of  the 
abdomen,  but  be  held  by  shoulder-straps,  or 
by  waists  kept  up  by  shoulder-straps.  Round 
shoulders,  by  pressing  the  lungs  out  of  their 
proper  position,  are  friends  of  consumption. 

DISEASES. 

Bronchitis  (br6n  ki'tis)  is  a  disease  of  the 
bronchial  tubes,  pleurisy  (piu'  ri  sSr)  of  the 
pleura,  the  soft  skin  covering  the  lungs ; 
pneumonia  (na  mo'  ni  &)  and  consumption  affect 
the  lungs  themselves,  and  croup  is  a  disease 
of  the  larynx  and  windpipe. 

All  these  dangers  may  be  largely  avoided 
by  wearing  sufficient  clothing,  by  being  care- 
ful not  to  utake  cold,"  by  eating  proper  food, 
and  by  living  in  houses  that  are  dry,  clean, 
light,  well-warmed,  and  well-aired,  and  built 
in  healthy  places. 

VENTILATION. 

Ventilation  is  the  removal  of  impure  or 
poisoned  air  from  buildings  and  the  supply- 
ing of  fresh  air  in  its  place. 


118  RESPIRATION. 


CAUSES     OF     IMPURE     AIR. 

In  a  pleasant  village,  a  few  years  ago, 
stood  a  large  house,  of  which  people  were 
afraid,  "because  all  who  tried  to  live  there 
sickened,  and  some  of  them  died. 

But  one  day,  a  stranger  looked  over  the 
grounds  and  house,  then  bought  the  estate 
and  ordered  repairs ;  when  these  were  fin- 
ished, his  family  moved  in,  and  were  healthy 
and  happy  there. 

The  secret  of  the  change  lay  in  the  own- 
er's knowledge  of  the  laws  of  health.  He 
provided  a  supply  of  pure  water  for  family 
use,  to  take  the  place  of  that  from  the  old 
well  into  which  the  drainage  soaked.  De- 
caying vegetables,  old  boards,  ancient  brooms, 
and  other  rubbish  in  various  stages  of  slimy 
rottenness,  were  cleared  out  of  the  cellar, 
from  which  they  had  been  sending  poison- 
ous gases  through  the  house. 

A  long  drain  was  built  to  carry  the  dish- 
water out  into  the  garden ;  and  refuse  mat- 
ter from  the  table,  such  as  broken  bits  of 
meat  and  skins  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  was 


VENTILATION     OF     BUILDINGS.  119 

burned  in  the  kitchen  range,  not  thrown 
out  at  the  hack  door  and  left  to  decay. 

The  neighbors  no  longer  feared  the  house, 
hut  followed  the  example  of  its  new  owner. 
Gravel  and  concrete  paths  and  sidewalks  re- 
placed those  of  decaying  hoards,  and  piles 
of  old  saw-dust  from  the  sheds  went  to  feed 
furnace  fires. 

At  last,  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  and  ma- 
laria, almost  disappeared  from  that  locality, 
because  their  causes  were  so  largely  removed. 

Remember  that  air  which  contains  decay- 
ing animal  and  vegetable  matter,  is  not  fit 
to  breathe;  and  that  water,  under  the  same 
conditions,  is  not  fit  to  drink.  It  is  well 
that  winds  blow  poisonous  gases  away,  that 
the  falling  rains  wash  the  air  clean,  and  that 
plants  live  on  carbonic  acid  which,  in  suffi- 
cient quantity,  is  fatal  to  animal  life. 

VENTILATION     OF     BUILDINGS. 

Waste  matter  from  the  body  is  always 
passing  off  by  means  of  the  skin  and  lungs ; 
fires,  whether  for  lighting  or  heating,  send 
out  carbonic  acid ;  sweeping  and  the  tread 


120  RESPIRATION. 

of  feet  set  free  dust  and  "bits  of  wool  from 
trie  carpets. 

Unless  great  pains  are  taken  to  keep  the 
air  in  our  nouses,  school-rooms,  halls,  and 
cliurches,  fit  for  breathing,  -we  poison  our- 
selves. 

Janitors  of  cliurches,  school-rooms,  and 
other  public  "buildings,  should  never  close 
doors  and  windows,  as  soon  as  an  audience 
has  passed  out,  and  shut  up  the  poisoned  air 
to  be  breathed  over  again  the  next  time  the 
room  is  used. 

The  air  in  such  rooms  in  cold  weather  is 
really  carbonic  acid  gas  and  other  impurities 
"warmed  over."  Doors  and  windows  should 
be  opened  on  opposite  sides,  until  the  fresh 
air  has  taken  the  place  of  that  in  the  room. 

No  lesson,  sermon,  lecture,  or  concert,  can 
be  understood  or  enjoyed  by  a  sleepy,  heed- 
less audience — sleepy  and  heedless  because  of 
the  poisoned  air  it  has  taken  into  its  lungs. 

The  headache  which  we  so  often  have  in 
ill-ventilated  rooms,  is  the  common  result  of 
re-breathing  carbonic  acid  and  other  impuri- 
ties. Thus  we  see  that  good  studying,  preach- 


VENTILATION    OF    BUILDINGS.  121 

ing,  and  teaching,  as  well  as  good  health,  are 
dependent  on  good  air. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  in  the  ven- 
tilation of  sleeping-rooms.  Leave  a  close 
room  in  which  you  have  spent  the  night,  for 
a  brisk  walk  in  the  open  air — then  return  to 
it  again. 

The  air  is  foul  with  the  heavy,  suffocating 
odor  of  waste  matter,  the  product  of  your 
lungs,  which  you  have  been  breathing  over 
and  over  again  during  your  sleeping  hours. 
You  felt  stupid  and  tired  on  waking,  because 
poisoned  by  your  own  breath. 

Sleeping-rooms  should  be  so  ventilated  in 
the  winter,  as  well  as  in  the  summer,  that 
the  sleeper  may  have  a  constant  supply  of 
moderately  warm,  fresh  air.  This  can  be  done 
by  raising  the  lower  and  dropping  the  upper 
sash  of  a  window  in  a  warm  room. 

Cold  air  is  not  necessarily  pure  air,  and,  in 
northern  climates,  is  often  too  severe  in  win- 
ter to  be  breathed  at  night  by  any  but  the 
most  robust. 

Two  openings  are  needed  in  order  to  ven- 
tilate a  room  properly — one  through  which 


122  RESPIRATION. 

the  impure  air  may  pass  out,  and  another  by 
which  the  pure  air  may  enter. 

There  are  many  ways  of  doing  this.  One 
is  to  open  the  windows  a  little,  both  at  the 
top  and  bottom,  as  already  suggested.  Open 
fire-places  are  excellent  ventilators.  Through 
them,  a  stream  of  air  from  the  room  goes  up 
the  chimney,  and  air  from  withoLit  must 
come  in  to  take  its  place. 

While  we  must  have  fresh  air  to  breathe, 
it  is  not  safe  to  sit  or  stand  in  a  draught  of 
air. 

AIR     IN     SICK-ROOMS. 

The  air  of  the  sick-room  should  be  always 
pure  and  fresh.  To  "take  the  breath"  of 
another  person  is,  of  course,  to  take  the  car- 
bonic acid  and  other  waste  matter  from  his 
lungs  into  your  own.  Contagious  diseases  are 
often  spread  in  this  way. 

ALCOHOL     AND     THE     LUNGS. 

Alcohol,  as  you  have  learned,  is  sent  into 
the  blood  as  soon  as  possible.  The  blood  car- 
ries a  part  to  the  lungs,  and  thus  you  may 


ALCOHOL    AND    THE    LUNGS.  123 

often  know  from  the  "breath  that  a  person 
has  been  drinking. 

In  passing  through  them,  alcohol  injures 
the  delicate  air-cells  of  the  lungs.  The  idea 
that  this  narcotic  will  prevent  consumption 
is  a  mistake.  There  is  one  form  of  this  dis- 
ease, called  alcoholic  consumption,  which  is 
caused  toy  alcohol.* 

The  drinker  looks  well  and  feels  well,  till 
suddenly  comes  a  "dropped  stitch,"  or  a  pain 
in  the  side.  Then  follow  difficulty  of  "breath- 
ing and  vomiting  of  blood ;  then  a  rapid  pas- 
sage to  the  grave ;  for  medicine,  food,  change 
of  air,  all  prove  useless. 


*  Dr.  A.  B.  Palmer  says  in  a  recent  "work,  "Science  and  Practice 
of  Medicine"  : — "An  impression  seems  to  have  obtained  a  footing  in 
this  country,  that  the  use  of  alcohol,  even  in  excessive  quantities, 
tends  to  prevent  consumption. 

' '  The  origin  of  this  opinion  it  is  not  easy  to  discover.  It  was  not 
imported  from  Europe ;  for,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain, 
it  is  not  held  there  by  any  respectable  authority.  It  is  not  sus- 
tained by  any  authenticated  statistics  with  which  I  am  acquainted. 

"Dr.  Peacock,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  highly  esteemed  spe- 
cialists in  lung  diseases  in  London,  and  Physician  to  Victoria  Park 
Hospital  for  Consumptives,  when  told  of  the  American  notion  of 
the  preventive  power  of  alcohol  in  consumption,  and  asked  whether 
he  thought  it  prevented  the  disease,  replied,  that  so  far  from  it,  it 
was  a  fruitful  cause  of  a  certain  form  of  the  disease." 

Dr.  Palmer  adds,  ' '  Too  many  persons  have  been  made  drunkards 
from  the  notion  that  whiskey  prevents  consumption,  to  make  the 
view  of  its  bearings  upon  morals  and  intemperance  a  matter  of 
indifference  to  the  conscientious  physician." 


124  RESPIRATION. 

Alcohol  injures  muscular  power,  and,  as 
the  diaphragm  and  the  muscles  which  move 
the  rios  are  used  in  "breathing,  respiration  is 
often  imperfect  in  those  who  drink.  Some- 
times, these  muscles  are  so  affected  that 
paralysis  or  death  occurs.  Life  depends  on 
respiration,  and  liquors  are  the  enemy  of 
healthy  "breathing. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  Define  respiration,  expiration,  inspiration. 

2.  Give  the  names  of  the  organs  of  breathing. 

3.  Describe  the  trachea ;  — the  larynx  ;  — the  epiglottis. 

4.  What  are  the  organs  used  in  speaking? 

5.  What  are  the  bronchial  tubes?— the  cilia? 

6.  Describe  the  work  of  the  lungs. 

7.  How  should  we  breathe? 

8.  How  does  tight  clothing  about  the  waist  injure  a  person? 

9.  Name  diseases  of  the  organs  of  breathing. 

10.  How  may  these  diseases  be  avoided? 

11.  What  is  ventilation? 

12.  Tell  the  story  of  the   "haunted  house"   and  its  changed  condi- 

tion. 

13.  How  dia  the  neighbors  improve  their  premises? 

14.  How  did  the  result  affect  the  health  of  the  people  ? 

15.  How  are  air  and  water  often  made  unfit  for  use? 

16.  Why  do  buildings  need  ventilation? 

17.  What  is  said  of  the  air  in  churches,  school-rooms,  etc.? 

18.  Why  does  a  close  room  often  give  one  the  headache? 

19.  How  should  sleeping-rooms  be  ventilated? 

20.  Is  it  safe  to  "take  the  breath"  of  another  person?     Why? 

21.  How  does  alcohol  affect  the  lungs? 

22.  Describe  alcoholic  consumption. 

23.  How  is  alcohol  likely  to  injure  the  organs  of  breathing? 


OHAPTEE      XII. 

CIRCULATION. 
THE      BLOOD. 

(HE  blood  is  a  thin,  watery  liquid  in 
which  float  millions  of  little  round 
blood-disks.  As  most  of  these  are  red,  the 
blood  looks  red. 

FIG.  22. 


A,  blood-disks  of 


blood,  highly  magnified;  B,   blood- disks  in  the  blood  of  an 
animal. 


A  French  writer  says :  "  You  feel  quite 
sure  that  blood  is  red,  do  you  not  ?  Well, 
it  is  no  more  red  than  the  water  of  a  stream 
would  be,  if  you  were  to  fill  it  with  little 
red  fishes. 


126  CIRCULATION. 

"  Suppose  the  fishes  to  be  very,  very  small, 
as  small  as  a  grain  of  sand,  and  closely 
crowded  together  through  the  whole  depth 
of  the  stream,  the  water  would  look  red, 
would  it  not  ?  And  this  is  the  way  in  which 
the  "blood  looks  red.  Only  observe  one  thing 
—  a  grain  of  sand  is  a  mountain  in  compari- 
son with  the  little  red  bodies  which  float  in 
the  blood. 

"  In  a  single  drop  of  blood,  such  as  might 
hang  on  the  point  of  a  needle,  there  are 
millions  of  these  bodies." 

CLOTTING     OF     THE      BLOOD. 

This  rarely  occurs  in  the  living  blood  in- 
side the  vessels.  But  when  blood  is  taken 
from  the  body  and  allowed  to  stand  awhile, 
the  disks  collect  so  as  to  form  a  clot,  which 
floats  in  the  watery  liquid. 

If  the  flesh  is  slightly  cut  anywhere,  and 
the  blood  flows  — as  it  will,  so  numerous  are 
the  blood-vessels  — a  clot  soon  forms  at  the 
mouths  of  the  vessels  and  stops  the  flow. 

This  clot  is  really  a  little  plug  formed  by 
tlxe  separation  of  the  parts  of  the  blood. 


THE    ORGANS    OF    CIRCULATION. 


127 


FIG.  23. 


THE     ORGANS     OF     CIRCULATION 

Tile  lieart  is  placed  a  little  to  tlie  left  of 
tlie  middle  line  of 
the  chest.  Con- 
nected with  it  is 
a  set  of  tubes 
which  carry  blood 
to  and  from  all 
parts  of  the  body. 

The  little  tubes 
which  carry  the 
fresh  blood  from 
the  heart  to  every 
part  of  the  body 
are  called  arteries 

(ar'ter  iz)  ;       while 

those  tubes  which 
c  a  r  r  y  the  blood 
back  to  the  heart  * 
are  called  veins  (van§) 

Connecting"    the    arteries 
tubes    much    too    small    to 


The  heart.    A,  the  right  ventricle  ;  B,  the  left  ventrl 
cle;  C,  the  right  auricle ;  D,  the  left  auricle. 


and     veins     are 
be    seen    by   the 


*  The  portal  vein  is   an   exception   to  this   rule,  since   it   carries 
blood  from  the  digestive  organs  to  the  liver. " 


128  CIRCULATION. 

naked  eye,  called  capillaries.  So  very  fine  are 
these  that  the  blood-disks  have  to  go  through 
them  in  single  file. 

THE      HEART. 

The  heart  is  a  strong,  muscular  bag,  in 
shape  and  size  somewhat  like  a  very  large 
pear.  Around  it  is  a  loose  bag  of  connective- 
tissue. 

The  heart  is  divided  lengthwise,  by  a  par- 
tition called  the  septum  (sgp'ttim),  into  right 
and  left  halves.  Each  half  is  divided  crosswise 
into  chambers  which  open  into  each  other. 

The  upper  chambers  are  called  .the  right 
and  left  auricles  (aV^l-eis);  the  lower  cham- 
bers, the  right  and  left  ventricles  (vSn'  trf  cis). 
As  the  blood  can  not  pass  through  the  sep- 
tum, the  heart  is  really  a  double  organ. 

MOTIONS     OF     THE     HEART. 

The  muscular  fibers  of  the  heart  are  so 
arranged  as  to  contract  the  two  auricles  at 
the  same  time.  The  blood  is  thus  sent  into 
the  ventricles,  which,  in  their  turn,  contract 
together  and  so  send  the  blood  from  the  heart. 


COURSE    OF    THE    BLOOD. 


The  walls  of  the  auricles  are  nmcli  thin- 
ner tlian  tliose  of  tlie  ventricles,  since  they 
have  to  send  the  "blood  so  short  a  distance, 
that  but  little  strength  is  needed. 

COURSE  OF  THE  BLOOD. 

We  may  think  of  the  heart  as  an  engine 
which  pumps  the  "blood  all  through  the  body. 

FIG.  24. 


B  0 

Circulation  of  Hie  blood  in  the  web  of  a  frog's  foot,  highly  magnified.  A,  an 
artery;  B,  capillaries  crowded  with  disks;  C,  a  deeper  vein.  The  black  spots  ara 
coloring  matter  in  cells. 

The  bright,  pure  blood  is  pumped  out  from 
the  left  side  through  a  large  artery,  called 
the  aorta  (a  or'  ta). 

An  express  wagon,  you  know,  carries  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  goods.  It  may  have  machin- 
ery for  a  mill,  a  package  of  money  for  the 


130  CIRCULATION. 

bank,  a  silk  dress  for  your  mother,  or  a  bi- 
cycle (bi's^-ei^)  for  you.  Tlie  express-man  takes 
each  tiling  to  tlie  right  place,  leaves  it  there, 
and  then  drives  away. 

So  the  blood  passing  from  the  large  artery 
into  the  smaller  ones,  and  then  into  the 
capillaries,  leaves  one  kind  of  substance  with 
the  bones,  another  with  the  muscles,  and 
still  another  with,  the  skin. 

If,  by  the  right  kind  of  eating,  drinking, 
breathing,  and  other  care,  we  have  put  proper 
materials  into  our  blood,  it  will,  in  its  course 
through  the  body,  leave  what  each  part  needs 
for  its  work  in  keeping  us  strong  and  "well. 

Sometimes,  when  the  express-man  leaves  a 
box  at  a  house,  he  takes  away  at  the  same 
time,  a  package,  or  a  trunk,  for  another  place. 
The  blood  does  this,  too ;  but  the  material 
which  the  blood  takes  away  from  the  differ- 
ent parts,  is  worn-out  or  useless  matter  that 
must  be  made  over  or  sent  out  of  the  body. 

The  tiny  veins  that  join  the  capillaries 
unite,  till  at  last  they  form  two  great  veins 
which  bring  the  blood  back  to  the  right 
auricle  of  the  heart. 


COURSE  OF  THE  BLOOD.  131 

By  tlie  time  it  readies  tlie  veins,  it  car- 
ries such,  a  load  of  waste  matter  that  it  is 
of  a  dark  blue  color,  as  seen  in  the  blood- 
vessels of  tne  wrist.  After  eating,  newly- 
digested  food  forms  a  part  of  this  venous 
"blood.  Sent  from  the  right  auricle  into  the 
right  ventricle,  it  is  then  hurried  to  the  lungs. 

There  the  wonderful  change  takes  place 
which  you  learned  about  in  studying  res- 
piration. The  waste  matter,  largely  carbonic 
acid,  is  sent  off  with  the  breath,  and  oxygen 
takes  its  place.  The  blood  becomes  bright 
scarlet  again,  and  fit  to  nourish  the  body. 

The  veins  then  carry  it  to  the  left  auricle 
and  it  starts  on  another  journey  through 
the  system.  It  travels  so  rapidly,  as  to  get 
back  to  the  heart  in  less  than  thirty  seconds. 
From  two  quarts  to  a  gallon  of  blood,  pass 
through  a  man's  heart  every  minute. 

The  walls  of  the  left  ventricle  are  much 
thicker  and  stronger  than  those  of  the  right, 
because  they  have  to  contract  with  force 
enough  to  send  the  blood  through  the  body, 
"while  the  right  ventricle  sends  it  only  to 
the  lungs. 


132  CIRCULATION. 

This,   then,   is  tlie   course  of  the  blood : 
Left   side  of  the  heart. — Pure,   fresh  blood 
comes    from    the    lungs    and    is    sent    out    to 
nourish  the  body. 

Right  side  of  the  heart. — Impure,  blue 
blood  comes  from  all  parts  of  the  body  and 
is  sent  to  the  lungs. 

This  movement  of  the 
blood  round  and  round  in 
the  body,  is  called  circu- 
lation (sir  -eu  la'tion). 

Little  flaps  of  delicate 
skin,  called  valves,  are  so 

Valves  of  the  veins. 

placed  in  the  heart  and 

veins,  that  if  the  blood  tries  to  move  in  the 
wrong  direction,  the  back-flow  is  prevented 
by  the  shutting  of  the  valves  across  the  pas- 
sage-ways or  tubes. 

Brisk  exercise  of  any  kind  makes  the 
blood  flow  faster,  and  thus  increases  the 
warmth  of  the  body. 

The  teamster  swings  his  arms  and  rubs 
his  hands  together  in  cold  weather,  because 
his  blood,  being  chilled,  is  moving  slowly, 
and  he  must  quicken  its  flow. 


-THE    PULSE.  133 

The  heat  one  feels  after  taking-  brisk 
exercise,  is  more  natural  and  more  healthful 
than  that  which  is  obtained  from  nearness 
to  a  warm  fire. 

THE     PULSE. 

In  adults,  the  blood  is  sent  out  from  the 
heart  about  seventy  times  a  minute  ;  in  chil- 
dren, from  eighty  to  ninety  times  a  minute. 

Most  of  the  arteries  lie  deep  in  the  flesh ; 
but,  at  the  wrist  and  the  temple,  they  are 
so  near  the  surface  that  you  can  feel  the 
pulse,  or  the  motion  of  the  blood  as  it  is 
sent  through  the  arteries  by  the  "beating" 
of  the  heart. 

Usually,  if  the  pulse  is  much  faster  or 
slower  than  the  average  rate,  the  person  is 
sick ;  the  doctor  counts  the  pulse  of  a  patient, 
so  as  to  know  how  his  heart  is  -working. 

Rest  is  as  necessary  for  the  heart  as  for 
other  muscles.  To  secure  it,  there  is  a  slight 
pause  between  the  beats.  Brief  as  each  pause 
is,  if  all  these  moments  are  added  together, 
they  make  about  nine  hours  of  rest  during 
the  twenty-four. 


134  CIRCULATION. 

WORK      OF     THE      HEART. 

At  every  beat,  the  lieart  moves  about  four 
ounces  of  blood. 

Suppose  you  had  a  machine  which  could 
lift  very  heavy  weights.  The  coal-man  brings 
you  a  ton  of  coal,  and  you  put  it  into  a  large 
box,  fasten  the  box  to  the  machine,  turn  a 
crank,  and  the  strong  arm  of  your  machine 
swings  the  box  of  coal  up  into  the  air  with 
perfect  ease. 

You  try  a  heavier  weight  —  say  twenty- 
five  tons ;  this  also  is  lifted  easily,  but  not 
so  high  as  before.  Try  fifty  tons  and  then 
seventy-five  ;  the  heavier  the  weight  of  coal, 
the  less  will  be  the  height  to  -which  your 
machine  will  raise  it. 

At  last,  you  try  one  hundred  twenty-two 
tons  :  the  machine  can  lift  this  heavy  load 
only  one  foot  from  the  ground ;  there  it 
stops,  for  there  is  not  power  enough  to  raise 
it  any  higher. 

The  heart  of  a  full-grown  man  or  woman 
uses  as  much  power  in  moving  blood  for 
twenty-four  hours,  as  your  machine  would 


CUTS     AND    WOUNDS.  135 

use  in  lifting  one  hundred  twenty-two  tons, 
one  foot  high. 

This  is  "what  learned  men  mean  when 
they  say:  "The  daily  work  of  the  healthy 
heart  in  an  adult,  is  equal  to  lifting  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-two  tons,  one  foot." 

CUTS     AND     WOUNDS. 

The  blood  in  the  arteries  of  the  limbs  is 
pure  and  fresh,  and  in  rapid  motion ;  in  the 
veins,  it  is  impure  and  moves  slowly. 

The  arteries,  being  deep  set,  are  not  easily 
injured ;  but,  if  bright,  red  blood  comes  in 
jerks  from  a  cut  or  wound,  you  may  know 
that  one  is  severed.  Send  for  a  surgeon  at 
once,  but  do  something  while  waiting  for 
him;  for  there  is  great  danger  that  the  suf- 
ferer will  bleed  to  death. 

Even  a  child  may  save  a  person's  life  at 
such  a  time,  if  he  knows  what  to  do.  The 
flow  of  blood  must  be  stopped  by  pinching  the 
artery,  as  you  would  stop  the  flow  of  water 
in  a  rubber  hose. 

If  possible,  take  a  handkerchief,  or  a  towel, 
or  any  convenient  bandage,  and  tie  it  around 


136  CIRCULATION. 

the  limb  close  to  tlie  wound,  and  between 
the  wound  and  the  heart.  Put  a  stick  into 
the  knot  and  twist  it  round  and  round,  just 
enough  to  stop  the  "bleeding  by  pressing  the 
artery. 

This  will  check  the  rush  of  blood  coming, 
you  remember,  from  the  heart,  and  enable 
it  to  form  a  clot  at  the  cut  end  of  the  tube. 
Keep  the  limb  raised  as  you  "work. 

If  the  blood  comes  in  a  slow,  steady 
stream,  a  vein  is  injured.  The  blood  in  the 
veins  is  going  to  the  heart,  you  know,  and 
is  moving  much  more  slowly  than  that  in 
the  arteries.  A  clot  will  usually  form  in  the 
cut  veins  "without  the  help  of  a  bandage. 

If  you  can  not  use  the  bandage,  or  if  this 
does  not  stop  the  bleeding,  press  a  handful 
of  dry  earth  upon  the  wound  and  hold  it 
there  until  help  comes;  this  is  a  " remedy 
that  has  saved  many  a  life  upon  the  battle- 
field." 

ALCOHOL     AND     THE      BLOOD. 

Often  the  blood  is  made  thin  by  the  enor- 
mous quantities  of  water,  or  of  beer,  which 


ALCOHOL     AND     THE     BLOOD-VESSELS.         137 

are  drunk,  because  of  the  "burning  thirst 
caused  by  alcohol.  In  case  of  a  severe  wound, 
the  blood,  when  it  is  in  such  a  condition,  does 
not  readily  clot,  and  there  is  greater  danger 
of  bleeding  to  death.  While  alcohol  is  in 
the  blood,  it  acts  injuriously  upon  the  vitality 
of  the  blood-disks,  and,  when  in  great  excess, 
may  cause  them  to  shrink. 

ALCOHOL  AND   THE   BLOOD-VESSELS. 

The  motion  of  the  heart  is  controlled  by 
the  nerves,  about  which  you  will  learn  in  a 
later  lesson.  "Wherever  you  find  blood-vessels 
—even  the  tiniest  capillaries — there  are  nerves 
entering  into  their  coats  and  controlling 
them. 

When  in  a  healthy  condition,  they  keep 
the  blood-vessels  from  stretching  or  shrink- 
ing, so  as  to  hold  too  much  or  too  little  blood. 

But,  if  a  person  drinks  gin,  whiskey,  wine, 
cider,  or  any  thing  containing  alcohol,  these 
nerves  are  at  once  deadened  by  this  narcotic ; 
they  fail  to  do  their  work  properly,  and 
therefore  the  elastic  walls  of  the  capillaries 
stretch,  letting  in  too  much  blood. 


138  CIRCULATION. 

This  is  often  seen  in  the  flushed  face,  es- 
pecially in  the  red,  Iblotched  nose,  of  a  drink- 
ing man.  The  imusual  amount  of  blood  in  the 
capillaries  shows  its  color  through  the  skin. 
This  is  a  pitiful  sight,  especially  when  we 
remember  that  alcohol  affects  in  a  similar 
way,  the  capillaries  of  the  brain,  stomach, 
and  other  parts  of  the  body. 

ALCOHOL     AND     THE      HEART. 

The  pendulum  regulates  the  works  of  a 
clock,  keeping  them  in  motion  at  the  proper 
rate ;  remove  it,  and  they  "  run  down,"  at 
once.  So  there  are  certain  nerves  which 
cause  the  heart  to  beat,  and  others  which, 
like  the  pendulum  of  a  clock,  keep  it  from 
moving  too  rapidly. 

Alcohol  affects  the  heart,  by  acting  mainly 
on  this  last  set  of  nerves  which  serve  as  its 
"  brakes."  This,  like  many  other  of  the 
truths  you  are  learning,  has  been  discovered 
by  experiments  on  the  lower  animals  and  on 
man. 

When  these  nerves  are  deadened,  the  heart 
beats  quicker,  but  its  power  is  decreased,  and 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS.  139 

tlie  pulsations  are  too  feeble  to  send  out  the 
blood  properly.  The  rapid  working  shortens 
its  times  of  rest,  and  heart  disease  is  often 
the  result. 

TOBACCO     AND     THE      HEART. 

The  effect  of  tobacco  on  the  heart  is  much 
the  same  as  that  of  alcohol.  The  beat  is 
quickened,  but  the  power  is  weakened:  se- 
vere pain  around  the  heart  is  a  common  re- 
sult of  smoking.  There  is  a  form  of  disease 
of  this  organ,  which  the  doctors  call  "  tobacco 
heart." 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  Describe  the  blood. 

2.  What  is  said  of  it  by  a  French  writer? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  clotting  of  the  blood? 

4.  Name  and  locate  the  organs  of  circulation. 

5.  Describe  the  heart;— its  motions. 

6.  State  the  course  of  the  blood. 

7.  What  does  the  blood  carry  to  every  part  of  the  body? 

8.  What  does  it  take  away  ? 

9.  What  kind  of  blood  is  in  the  right  side  of  the  heart? 

10.  How  is  the  blood   changed  in  the  lungs? 

11.  What  kind  of  blood  is  in  the  left  side  of  the  heart? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  circulation  ? 

13.  What  is  the  use  of  the  valves  in  the  heart  and  veins? 

14.  What  is  the  effect  of  exercise  on  the  motion  of  the  heart? 

15.  What  is  the  pulse? 

16.  How  often  does  it  beat  in  children  ?— in  adults  ? 


140  CIRCULATION. 


17.  Why  does  the  doctor  count  the  pulse  of  a  patient? 

18.  When  does  the  heart  rest? 

19.  Compare  the  daily  work  of  the   heart    with   that   of  a   lifting- 

machine. 

20.  How   may   you   know   whether   an    artery   or   a   vein    has    been 

cut? 

21.  If  an   artery,    how    would   you   stop   the   flow   of   blood?  — if  a 

vein? 

22.  In  what  ways  is  alcohol  likely  to  injure  the  blood? 

23.  What    control    the    motion    of   the   heart   and   the    size    of    the 

blood-vessels  ? 

24.  How  does  alcohol  affect  these  nerves  ? 

25.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  flushed  face  of  the  drinking  man  ? 

26.  What  two  classes  of  nerves  act  on  the  heart? 

27.  How  does  alcohol  affect  the  heart-beat? 

28.  How  does  tobacco  affect  the  heart? 


CHAPTER      XIII. 

THE      SKIN. 
CUTIS     AND      CUTICLE. 

tHE  skin  lias  two  layers.  The  lower  one 
is  called  the  cutis  (-eu'  tis),  or  true  skin ; 
the  upper  one,  the  cuticle  (-eur  ti -ei^).  These 
layers  never  interfere  with  muscular  motion ; 
for  they  cover  the  flesh  more  nicely  than 
the  finest  glove  fits  the  hand. 

At  the  lips  and  nose,  this  covering-  changes 
to  a  softer  and  more  delicate  one,  called  the 
mucous  membrane  (mSm'bran),  which  extends 
into  the  body  and  forms  the  lining  of  most 
of  its  organs. 

THE     CUTI  S. 

The  inner,  or  true  skin,  is  full  of  nerves 
and  blood-vessels ;  it  has,  also,  weak  muscular 
fibers,  by  means  of  which  the  skin  is  some- 
times "  puckered "  into  "goose-pimples,"  or 
the  hair  made  to  "stand  on  end." 


142 


THE    SKIN. 


On  the  palm  of  your  hand  and  the  ends  of 
your  fingers,  you  can  see  little  ridges  called 
papillae  (pa  pii'le).  These  contain  so  many  of 
the  tiny  nerves  by  which  news  is  carried  to 
the  brain,  that  our  hands  are  the  chief  or- 
gans of  touch.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  other  senses,  es- 
pecially that  of  sight,  one 
learns  to  rely  upon  the  sense 
of  touch.  The  blind  read 
by  passing  their  fingers  or 
'D  lips  over  raised  letters. 

THE     CUTICLE. 

We  could  not  bear  to 
touch  the  nerve-ends  «  di- 
rectly, for  that  would  give 
pain  in  the  hands,  almost  as 
severe  as  the  toothache. 

The  cuticle  covers  the  cu- 
tis  and  protects  the  nerves. 
It  is  made  of  hard,  dry 
scales  and  becomes  thicker 
by  use,  as  on  the  hands  of  a  blacksmith,  or 
on  the  feet  of  a  barefoot  boy.  Its  scales  rub 


A,  a  perspiratory  lube  with  Us 
gland ;  B,  a  hair  with  a  musde 
and  two  oil-glands;  C,  cuticle; 
D,  the  papillae;  and  E,  fat-cells. 


THE    PERSPIRATION.  143 

off  on  our  under-clothing  and  on  the  sheets 
of  our  beds.  In  a  blister,  bloody  or  watery 
matter  forces  itself  between  the  two  layers 
of  the  skin. 

THE      PERSPIRATION. 

When  a  workman  comes  in  from  the  hay- 
field  on  a  hot  August  day,  his  face  is  covered 
with  drops  of  water;  so  is  yours  after  a  run, 
and  you  say,  you  are  "sweaty." 

This  sweat,  or  perspiration,  is  a  part  of  the 
waste  matter  which  must  be  sent  out  of  the 
body.  It  oozes  through  very  small  holes  in 
the  skin,  called  pores— so  small  that  you  can 
not  see  them  without  a  magnifying  glass. 
They  are  the  mouths  of  small  tubes  that  ex- 
tend through  the  skin,  the  lower  end  of 
each  being  coiled  into  a  tiny  ball. 

They  are  most  numerous  in  the  soles  of 
the  feet,  the  arm-pits,  the  palms  of  the 
hands,  and  the  forehead.  If  all  these  drains 
of  the  body  were  straightened  out  and  laid 
end  to  end,  they  would  make  a  line  more 
than  three  miles  long. 

Perspiration    is    at    all   times    passing    off 


144  THE    SKIN. 

through,  the  pores ;  but  we  notice  it  only 
when  there  is  enough  to  form  drops.  It 
cools  the  body,  and  suddenly  to  stop  perspir- 
ing is  one  of  the  first  symptoms  of  heat- 
stroke or  sun-stroke. 

Mixed  with  the  water  of  the  sweat  is 
"waste  matter  from  the  body.  The  skin  is 
thus  one  of  our  most  important  scavengers, 
and  garments  which  prevent  the  perspiration 
from  passing  away  into  the  air,  are  not 
healthful ;  the  feet  become  damp  and  cold, 
if  rubber  overshoes,  which  keep  in  the  moist- 
ure, are  worn  for  any  great  length  of  time. 

A  little  boy  was  once  covered  with  gold- 
leaf  to  represent  an  angel  in  a  festival.  This 
kept  the  perspiration  from  leaving  his  body, 
and  he  died  in  a  few  hours. 

THE     OIL-GLANDS. 

The  skin  is  kept  smooth  and  soft  by  an 
oily  substance  sent  out  from  little  sacs  in 
the  cutis,  called  oil-glands.  A  similar  oily 
material  moistens  and  keeps  the  hair  glossy. 

The  oil,  or  sebaceous  (se  ba'  shtis),  glands  are 
quite  large  on  the  face,  and  sometimes  the 


THE    HAIR    AND    NAILS.  145 

matter  in  tliem  hardens  and  dries.  When 
their  mouths  are  open,  particles  of  dirt  min- 
gle with  the  oily  matter,  and  they  become 
dark-colored  and  are  often  called  "worms." 
They  can  then  be  easily  pressed  out  and  the 
black  spots  removed. 

COMPLEXION. 

Small  grains  of  coloring-matter  on  the 
lower  side  of  the  cuticle,  cause  the  different 
colors  of  the  skin.  When  these  collect  in 
spots,  the  skin  is  freckled. 

THE     HAIR     AND     NAILS. 

These  grow  from  the  cuticle.  Each  hair 
has  a  tiny  sac,  or  fold  of  skin,  at  its  root. 
The  nails  protect  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  and 
grow  rapidly. 

You  may  easily  prove  this,  by  making  a 
little  mark  near  the  base  of  one  of  them, 
and  watching  it  from  day  to  day. 

The  nails  should  always  be  kept  clean  and 
•well-cut ;  not  bitten  nor  broken  off.  Finger- 
nails, black  with  needless  dirt  under  the  ends, 
are  not  the  mark  of  a  gentleman  or  a  lady. 


14:6  THE    SKIN. 


BATH  I  NG. 

The  sweat-tubes  will  not  work  properly 
if  dirt  is  allowed  to  clog  or  close  the  open- 
ings. Bathing,  therefore,  is  very  necessary 
to  the  health  of  the  "body. 

For  most  strong,  well  persons,  the  best 
time  for  a  bath  is  just  after  rising.  The 
water  used  may  be  cold,  or  slightly  warm. 
If  hot  water  is  used,  a  dash  of  cold  water 
at  the  close  of  the  bath,  "with  vigorous  rub- 
bing, will  prevent  the  tired  feeling  that 
would  otherwise  follow. 

Cold  water  drives  the  blood  away  from 
the  skin  for  an  instant;  but  it  comes  back 
when  the  surface  is  briskly  rubbed,  giving 
a  delightful  warmth  and  glow  to  the  body. 

A  healthy  person  need  not  be  at  all  chilled 
by  a  cold  bath.  Uncover  only  a  small  part 
of  the  body  at  a  time,  and  wash  rapidly  and 
rub  well  with  a  coarse  towel.  If  the  bath 
is  thus  taken,  and  each  part  covered  as  soon 
as  it  is  dry  and  warm,  no  chill  will  be  felt. 

All  should  bathe  at  least  twice  a  week, 
and  soap  is  needed  on  the  whole  body  at 


DISEASES    TAKEN     BY    THE    SKIN.  147 

least  once  a  week,  to  remove  the  oily  matter 
that  has  dried  upon  the  skin. 

The  old  idea  that  it  must  not  be  used  upon 
the  face  is  a  mere  whim.  When  needed  for 
cleanliness,  use  it  on  the  face  as  freely  as  on 
any  other  part  of  the  "body. 

DISEASES     TAKEN      BY     THE      SKIN. 

There  is  danger  in  using  many  of  the 
cheap  toilet  soaps,  since  they  are  sometimes 
made  from  the  fat  of  diseased  animals,  and 
diseases  may  thus  "be  taken  into  the  system 
through  the  pores  of  the  skin. 

Soldiers  who  want  to  shirk  duty,  some- 
times put  a  piece  of  tobacco  under  each  arm- 
pit. The  poison  passing  through  the  pores 
soon  sickens  them,  and  the  surgeon  sends 
them  to  the  hospital. 

Painters  and  operatives  in  lead  works,  are 
often  made  sick  by  little  particles  of  the 
lead  which  they  handle,  entering  the  pores 
and  poisoning  the  blood. 

Face-powders,  hair-dyes,  and  eye-washes, 
do  great  harm  in  the  same  way.  Good 
health  is  the  best  cosmetic  («6§  mSt'  i-e).  Noth- 


148  THE    SKIN. 

ing  else  will  give  such,  a  clear  complexion, 
rosy  cheeks,  and  brilliant  eyes.  Beauty  is 
much  more  than  "  skin-deep." 

THE    SUN. 

Sunlight  is  necessary  for  the  health  of 
the  skin,  as  well  as  for  all  the  other  parts 
of  the  body.  In  many  homes,  the  closed 
blinds  that  keep  the  carpets  bright,  keep  the 
people  who  live  behind  them,  faded  and  pale. 

The  trees  around  a  house  often  shade  it 
so  heavily  that  it  is  dark  and  damp.  Plants 
growing  in  cellars  have  white,  sickly  leaves; 
people  living  in  the  dark,  lose  strength  of 
body  and  mind,  as  well  as  color. 

The  sunlight  should  not  be  shut  out  from 
rooms  occupied  by  human  beings,  except  in 
times  of  extreme  heat. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  the  layers  of  the  skin.        '     . 

2.  What  is  the  mucous  membrane? 

3.  Describe  the  cutis ;— the  cuticle. 

4.  What   is  perspiration?— How   does   it  reach   the   surface  of  the 

body? 

5.  What  gives  the  different  colors  to  the  skin  ? 

6.  From  what  do  the  hair  and  nails  grow? 

7.  How  are  diseases  taken  by  the  skin? 


CHAPTER     XIY. 

ANIMAL     HEAT. 
USE     OF     THE     THERMOMETER. 

|HE  blood  in  the  healthy  human  body  lias 
an  average  heat  of  98°;  that  is,  if  you 
should  put  a  thermometer  (ther  mom'  e  ter)  into 
it  as  it  rushes  through  its  network  of  tubes, 
the  mercury  would  rise  as  high  as  it  does 
in  the  shade  on  a  hot  summer  day. 

This  result  can  not,  of  course,  be  arrived 
at  directly ;  but  the  blood-vessels  come  so 
near  the  surface  that  a  thermometer  held  in 
the  mouth  or  in  the  arm-pit  for  a  few  min- 
utes, will  show  the  temperature  within  the 
body.  Summer  or  winter,  arctic  cold  or  tor- 
rid heat,  make  but  little  difference  in  the 
internal  warmth,  so  long  as  one  is  well. 

If  there  is  much  change  in  the  heat  of 
the  body,  it  is  a  sign  of  danger;  in  fevers, 
for  instance,  the  doctor  keeps  careful  watch 


150  ANIMAL    HEAT. 

of  the  internal  heat  of  the  patient's  body— 
if  it  gets  above  a  certain  point,  there  is  no 
hope  of  recovery. 

But  this  heat  is  constantly  passing  off 
through  the  lungs,  skin,  and  other  organs. 
The  average  amount  lost  in  a  day  of  rest 
would  "boil  about  sixty  pounds  of  ice- water- 
in  a  day  of  work,  about  eighty  pounds. 
This  loss  must  be  balanced  by  gain. 

SOURCES     OF     HEAT. 

The  heat  of  the  body  results  from  the 
many  changes  constantly  going  on  within  it. 

The  changes  which  take  place  in  the  di- 
gestion of  food  and  in  the  tissues,  the  beat- 
ing of  the  heart,  the  motion  of  the  blood, 
the  movements  of  the  food-canal,  the  con- 
tracting of  the  muscles  — all  the  processes  of 
the  body,  tend  to  make  and  preserve  its  heat. 

CLOTHING. 

Woolen  under-garments  should  be  worn  in 
the  winter  in  northern  climates,  and  many 
persons  require  them  all  the  year. 

Men   who   work,  in  very  hot    places,  such 


CLOTHING.  151 

as  foundries  and  engine-rooms,  find  flannel 
shirts  more  comfortable  than  cotton  ones;  for 
they  protect  from  the  heat  of  the  fire  and 
do  not  so  readily  get  wet  with  perspiration 
and  then  allow  the  body  to  become  chilly. 

Loose  clothing  in  several  layers  is  warmer 
than  tight  and  very  thick  clothing.  The 
feet  and  lower  limbs  of  children,  in  these 
days  of  short  pants  and  short  dresses,  should 
be  clothed  with  care;  thick  boots  and  woolen 
stockings  are  necessary  for  their  health  and 
comfort,  during  more  than  half  the  year. 

A  wise  doctor  often  said  to  his  patients  : 
"  Never  allow  yourselves  to  feel  cold.  If  you 
are  chilly,  put  on  extra  clothing,  go  to  a 
warmer  room,  exercise  briskly,  in  some  way 
get  warm  and  keep  warm."  "Only  fools  and 
beggars  suffer  from  the  cold  ;  the  latter  not 
being  able  to  get  sufficient  clothes,  the  oth- 
ers not  having  the  sense  to  wear  them." 

Tight  clothing  chills  by  checking  the  cir- 
culation. Keeping  the  body  too  "warm  by 
overheated  rooms  or  too  much  clothing,  is 
another  extreme  which  should  be  avoided. 

None  of  the  under-garments  worn  during 


152  ANIMAL    HEAT. 

the  day,  should  be  kept  on  at  night,  because 
waste  matter  from  the  perspiration,  and 
scales  of  the  cuticle,  have  collected  upon 
them ;  they  should  be  taken  off  and  spread 
out  so  as  to  be  thoroughly  aired  for  next  day. 

Outer  clothing  removed  at  night  should 
not  be  hung  in  closed  closets  or  wardrobes  ; 
there  is  more  or  less  perspiration  on  it,  and 
this  should  have  a  chance  to  escape.  Be  sure 
that  closets  and  wardrobes  are  often  aired. 

In  the  morning,  throw  the  bed  wide  open, 
and,  if  possible,  give  the  sheets  and  night- 
clothes  a  good  sun  bath.  A  wise  housewife 
will  not  have  beds  made  early;  but  will  let 
them  remain  open  until  noon,  or  even  night. 

The  family  will  be  gainers  in  the  fresh, 
sweet  sleep  taken  in  beds  that  have  been 
freed  from  foul  matter  by  the  air  and  sun. 
Night-clothes  should  be  hung  up  exposed 
to  the  air  when,  the  bed  is  made,  instead  of 
being  placed  under  the  pillow. 

TAKING     COLD. 

By  exposure  to  a  draught  of  air  when  one 
is  heated,  by  sitting  with  wet  feet  or  in  damp 


ALCOHOL    AND    COLD.  153 

garments,  by  going  into  cold  air  without  ex- 
tra clothing  —  in  these  and  many  other  ways, 
the  skin  is  suddenly  chilled.  The  number- 
less  little  pores  at  once  close,  and  the  waste 
matter  can  not  pass  away  through  them. 

It  often  tries  to  escape  by  way  of  the 
inner  skin  — the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth  and  nose  —  or  by  way  of  the  lungs. 
Then  we  have  a  "cold  in  the  head"  or  "on 
the  lungs,"  which  may  lead  to  more  serious 
trouble  if  not  attended  to  at  once. 

One  may  guard  against  "taking  cold"  by 
bathing  the  body  often,  and  by  rubbing  it 
daily  "with  a  flesh-brush  or  a  coarse  towel, 
thus  keeping  the  pores  of  the  skin  in  good 
working  order. 

ALCOHOL   AND   COLD. 

"Bitter  cold!  must  take  something  to 
warm  me  up,"  cries  the  driver  starting  on  a 
long  winter  ride.  So  he  swallows  a  glass  of 
whiskey;  says,  "That's  the  drink  to  warm  a 
man  ;  "  and  drives  away.  But  is  he  warmer  ? 

Alcohol  is  a  cheat  here  as  elsewhere.  The 
nerves  being  paralyzed,  the  capillaries  en- 


154  ANIMAL      HEAT. 

large,  and  an  increased  current  of  blood  pours 
into  those  of  the  skin.  This  makes  a  glow 
at  the  surface  of  the  body,  and  the  man  is 
sure  he  is  warmer,  because  he  feels  warmer. 

The  heat  of  this  warm  blood  at  once  passes 
off  from  the  surface,  and  soon  more  than  the 
proper  amount  of  heat  has  left  the  body. 

Try  the  thermometer — that  is  a  better  test 
than  the  feelings;  it  shows  that  the  body  is 
really  colder  very  soon  after  the  alcohol  has 
entered  it.  But  the  deadened  nerves  can  not 
carry  the  message,  or  sense  of  cold,  to  the 
brain,  and  no  effort  is  made  to  prevent  being 
chilled,  for  the  man  does  not  know  he  is 
cold.  This  is  the  first  step  toward  death,  and 
many  a  drunkard  has  been  frozen  to  death 
when  too  much  intoxicated  to  feel  his  danger. 

When  something  must  be  taken  to  start 
again  the  slow  moving  wheels  of  life  — as, 
when  one  is  nearly  frozen  to  death— a  little 
red  pepper  in  hot  water  is  an  excellent  rem- 
edy. Clear  hot  water,  hot  coffee,  or  ginger 
tea,  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  in  water,  or  am- 
monia (not  too  strong)  held  to  the  nostrils, 
are  also  valuable  helps  in  such  an  emergency. 


ALCOHOL     AND     COLD.  155 

Arctic  explorers  have  proved  that  alcoliol 
is  worse  than  useless  in  helping-  them  "bear 
extreme  cold.  Dr.  McRae  says:  "The  moment 
that  a  man  had  swallowed  a  drink  of  spirits, 
it  was  certain  that  his  day's  work  was  nearly 

at  an  end In  that  terrific  cold, 

the  use  of  liquor  as  a  beverage,  when  -we  had 
work  on  hand,  was  out  of  the  question." 

Until  lately,  the  explorer  who  had  gone 
nearest  to  the  north  pole  was  an  English- 
man named  Adam  Ayles.  He  was  proud  of 
being  able  to  say  there  had  never  been  a  drop 
of  alcohol  in  his  body.  When  in  the  extreme 
cold  of  those  regions,  he  bore  the  hard  work 
of  sledging  and  hunting  much  better  than 
the  men  who  used  liquor  now  and  then. 

Many  of  those  who  drank  liquor  became 
sick  and  helpless.  When  urged  to  drink 
liquor,  Adam  Ayles  replied  bravely :  "  No ! 
when  a  boy,  I  promised  my  mother  never  to 
touch  it ;  and,  if  I  perish  in  this  ice,  I  will 
keep  my  word."  He  returned  to  England 
alive  and  -well. 

When  a  detachment  of  the  Russian  army 
is  about  to  start  on  a  winter  expedition,  a 


156  ANIMAL     HEAT. 

corporal  goes  the  rounds  to  smell  the  breath 
of  each  soldier.  Those  who  have  been  drink- 
ing liquor  are  sent  back  to  their  barracks, 
since  they  can  not  endure  the  cold  march. 

ALCOHOL  AND  HEAT. 

Alcohol  is  no  "better  protection  against 
heat  than  against  cold.  Livingstone,  the  fa- 
mous African  explorer,  has  proved  that  men 
can  endure  more  in  tropical  climates  with- 
out it  than  with  it. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  do  doctors  use   the   thermometer   in   sickness  ?     For   what 

purpose  ? 

2.  How  does  the  heat  of  the  "body  pass  away  ? 

3.  How  is  more  heat  supplied  to  "balance  this  loss? 

4.  What  is  said  of  woolen  under-clothing  ? 

5.  How  should  the  feet  and  legs  of  children  he  dressed? 

6.  What  should  be  done  at  night  with  the  garments  worn  during 

the  day? 

7.  How  should  sheets  and  night-clothes  "be  aired? 

8.  Is  alcohol  a  good  preventive  of  chills? 

9.  Why  does  one  feel  warmer  after  drinking  a  glass  of  whiskey? 

10.  Is  he  really  warmer  or  colder?     Why? 

11.  How  would  you  prove  this? 

12.  Name  some  good  remedies  for  cases  of  prostration  from  cold. 

13.  What  do  Arctic  explorers  say  of  the  use  of  alcohol  ? 

14.  What  is  done  in  the  Russian  army? 

15.  What  is  said  about  alcohol  and  heat? 


CHAPTER      XV. 

ALCOHOL      AND      LIFE. 
INSURANCE. 

| HOSE  who  never  drink  liqLior  have  a  pros- 
pect of  living  much  longer  than  those 
who  do.  Many  diseases  are  caused  by  alco- 
hol, and  many  more  are  made  worse  toy  it. 

Of  diseases  like  the  cholera  and  yellow- 
fever,  pure  air,  clean  houses  and  streets,  and 
blood  unpoisoned  by  alcohol  and  tobacco,  are 
the  best  preventives. 

In  1832, 'when  the  cholera  was  in  London, 
this  notice  was  posted  by  the  city  officers : 
"Spirit-drinkers  will  be  the  first  victims  of 
the  cholera."  The  poisoned  bodies  of  alcohol- 
users  rarely  can  resist  the  disease. 

Life  insurance  companies  keep  careful 
records,  showing  how  many  years  different 
classes  of  men  will  probably  live.  Here  are 
some  of  the  results  of  their  study  in  England : 


158  ALCOHOL    AND    LIFE. 

When  a  total  abstainer  is 

20  years  old,  lie  may  expect  to  live  44     years  more. 
30       "        "      "       "          "          "       "    36.5       "          " 

Ar\  ((  II          (I  (l  (I  «  «        Og   Q  tt  (I 

When  a  moderate  drinker  is 

20  years  old,  lie  may  expect  to  live  15.5  years  more. 
30        "         "      "        "  "  "        "     13.8        "  " 

Ar\  «  ((          ((  ll  (I  «  ((        -j  -j    Q  ((  « 

From  these  records,  it  is  plain  that  those 
who  never  drink  liquor  have  the  best  chance 
for  length  of  life,  as  well  as  for  happiness 
and  power  to  work. 

The  President  of  one  life  insurance  com- 
pany in  New  England  says  of  beer-drinkers : 

"The  deaths  among  them  were  astounding. 
Robust  health,  full  muscles,  a  fair  outside,  in- 
creasing weight,  florid  faces,  then  a  touch  of 
disease  and  quick  death. 

"  It  was  as  if  the  system  had  been  kept 
fair  outside,  while  within,  it  -was  eaten  to  a 
shell,  and  at  the  first  touch  there  was  utter 
collapse  ;  every  fiber  was  poisoned  and  weak. 

Beer-drinking  is  very  deceptive,  at 

first;  it  is  thoroughly  destructive,  at  last." 

Some  companies  will  not  insure  the  lives 


HEREDITY.  159 

of  liquor-sellers,  because  they  know  tliat  they 
are  so  often  liquor-drinkers. 

HERE  DIT  Y. 

You  have  learned  enough  about  your  body 
by  this  time,  to  understand  that  when  people 
are  sick,  it  is  generally  their  own  fault ; 
either  they  have  not  been  taught  how  to 
care  for  their  bodies,  or  they  are  heedless  in 
spite  of  their  knowledge. 

But  sometimes,  one  is  sick  or  suffers  very 
much,  because  of  wrong  things  that  his 
parents  or  grand-parents  did.  Does  this  seem 
strange  ?  Some  one  has  told  you,  perhaps, 
that  you  have  your  father's  hair  and  eyes, 
but  that  your  mouth  and  chin  are  like  your 
mother's. 

You  have  heard  of  children  who  were 
quick-tempered,  or  generous  like  their  par- 
ents. Not  only  property,  but  faces  and  char- 
acter are  inherited.  Our  lives  are  very 
closely  linked  with  those  of  our  "blood  rela- 
tions," and  evil  tendencies,  as  well  as  good 
impulses,  descend  from  them  to  us. 

Over  in  the  poor-house,  is  a  man  who  does 


160  ALCOHOL    AND    LIFE. 

not  know  so  much  as  most  children  four 
years  old.  He  can  not  learn  to  read  or  write  ; 
he  is  an  idiot.  And  this  is  hecause  he  is 
the  child  of  drinking  parents  whose  poisoned 
life  blood  tainted  his  own. 

Many  men  and  women  are  insane,  hecause 
they  inherit  disordered  bodies  and  minds, 
caused  by  the  drinking  habits  of  their  par- 
ents ;  and  the  descendants  of  "  moderate 
drinkers  "  suffer  in  this  way,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  drunkard.* 

Some  men  of  great  self-control  may  use  a 
moderate  amount  of  alcoholic  liquors  through 
a  long  life,  without  apparent  injury.  But 
their  children  are  likely  to  inherit  a  stronger 
appetite  for  narcotics  and  a  weaker  will  with 
which  to  control  it. 


*  One  of  the  most  serious  objections  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors 
in  any  quantity,  is  the  taste  it  creates,  the  habit  it  establishes  — a 
taste  and  habit  often  transmitted  from  parents  to  their  children  — 
and  the  very  great  danger,  by  continuance  in  the  indulgence,  of 
its  resulting  in  gross,  degrading,  habitual  drunkenness. 

Even  if  a  moderate  indulgence  had  no  other  evil  effect,  this 
danger  is  so  great,  and  the  influence  of  the  example  on  others  is  so 
bad,  as  to  cause  every  "wise  and  good  man,  woman,  or  child,  to 
avoid  it  altogether. 

Every  body  knows  it  does  incalculable  harm,  and  if  it  does 
no  positive  good,  there  is  the  best  possible  reason  for  "total 
abstinence."— Dr.  A.  B.  Palmer. 


HEREDITY.  161 

Tobacco  and  opium  produce  similar  re- 
sults. Tliis  is  called  tlie  law  of  heredity* 
(he  rSd'i  ty).  It  is  one  of  God's  laws,  and,  like 
just  earthly  laws,  helps  right  living  and 
punish.es  those  who  disobey  it. 

The. English-speaking  races  have  descended 
from  men  who  were  hard  drinkers.  Our  an- 
cestors, the  old  Northmen,  were  famous  for 
their  wild  feasts,  at  which  they  drank  im- 
mense quantities  of  mead — a  fermented  liquor 
made  from  honey  and  milk.  In  the  early 

*  ' '  Three-fourths  of  the  idiots  "born  are  the  children  of  intem- 
perate parents."— Dr.  Howe. 

"Where  drinking  has  "been  strong  in  "both  parents,  I  think  it  a 
physical  certainty  that  it  will  be  traced  in  the  children."— Dr.  Anstte. 

"  One  more  example  which  has  come  under  my  own  professional 
observation,  may  be  useful.  A  gentleman  of  position,  sixty-four 
years  of  age,  is  an  hereditary  drunkard.  So  violent  is  he  that  his 
wife  and  family  had  to  leave  him. 

"One  of  his  sisters  has  lost  her  mind  through  drinking.  When 
drunk,  she  has  frequently  tried  to  commit  suicide  by  jumping 
from  a  window,  and  by  drowning.  Her  insanity  has  so  suicidal 
a  tendency  that  she  can  not  be  left  for  a  moment  alone.  She  will 
do  any  thing  for  drink  — will  beg,  borrow,  or  steal,  pawn  every- 
thing she  can  lay  her  hands  on,  and  even  essay  robbery  with  vio- 
lence in  the  hope  of  obtaining  money  to  gratify  her  morbid  crav- 
ing for  alcohol. 

"Another  sister  is  also  an  habitual  drunkard,  who  gets  into 
fits  of  ungovernable  fury  when  in  drink,  and  is  dangerous  both 
to  herself  and  to  others. 

"The  fatal  legacy  in  this  case  was  from  both  parents.  The 
father  shot  himself  when  insane  from  the  use  of  alcohol,  and  the 
mother  was  a  drunkard.  The  grandfather  was  also  a  confirmed 
inebriate."— Norman  Kerr,  M.D. 


162  ALCOHOL    AND     LIFE. 

days  of  the  English,  nation,  wine  and  ale 
were  every-where  used. 

In  America,  only  a  few  years  ago,  cider 
and  rum  were  found  in  the  cellar  and  on 
the  table  of  nearly  every  farmer;  and  no 
wedding,  funeral,  or  public  gathering  of  any 
sort,  was  without  its  free  liquor. 

The  ignorance  of  that  time  in  regard  to 
the  origin,  nature,  and  consequences  of  alco- 
hol, is  shown  "by  the  fact  that  the  first  tem- 
perance pledges  signed  in  this  country,  pro- 
hibited the  use  of  liquor  "  save  at  weddings 
and  funerals,"  and  the  taking  of  "  alcoholic 
drinks,  excepting  wine,  beer,  and  cider." 

The  hardy,  outdoor  life  which  was  led  by 
so  many  of  our  forefathers,  prevented  them 
from  feeling  the  full  effects  of  their  poisonous 
beverages. 

The  English  and  Americans  of  to-day  are 
descended  from  these  drinking  ancestors,  and 
inherit  from  them  a  craving  for  alcohol,  and 
are  safe  from  the  poison  only  when  they  let 
it  entirely  alone. 

The  taking  of  a  single  glass  of  liquor,  the 
eating  of  brandy  sauce  or  wine  jelly,  may 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS  163 

rouse  this  inherited  desire,  though  its  po- 
sessor  may  not  have  discovered  that  the 
taint  is  in  his  blood ;  the  appetite,  "becoming 
uncontrollable,  may  bring  its  owner  to  a 
drunkard's  grave. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  have  those  who  never  drink  liquor  a  prospect   of  living 

longer  than  those  who  do? 

2.  Name  good  preventives  of  such  diseases  as  cholera  and  yellow 

fever. 

3.  What  do  the  records  kept  by  life  insurance  companies  prove  in 

regard  to  total  abstinence  ? 

4.  "What  class  of  men  will  insurance  companies  not  insure? 

5.  If  we  are  sick,  whose  fault  is  it  usually? 

6.  By  the  faults  of  what  other  persons  may  our  illness  sometimes 

be  caused? 

7.  What  physical  traits  are  often  inherited?  — what  mental  traits? 

8.  How   do   the   habits   of  drinking  men   and   women   affect   their 

descendants  ? 

9.  What  is  this  law  called? 

10.  Prom  whom  do   English-speaking  people  inherit  the  taste   for 

alcohol  ? 

11.  How  were  liquors  used  in  America,   a  few  years'  ago? 

12.  Why  did  not  our  forefathers   feel  the  full   effect  of  the  liquor 

they  drank? 

13.  Is  it  safe  to  take  "the  first  glass"?  — why? 

CHAPTER     XIII. 

1.  What  are  "goose-pimples"?  — papillae? 

2.  Is   it    safe   to    wear   clothing    which  will   prevent    perspiration 

from  passing  into  the  air  ? 

3.  How  are  the  skin  and  hair  kept  smooth  and  glossy? 

4.  What  is  the  effect  of  face-powders  and  hair-dyes? 

5.  What  is  said  about  the  use  of  soap  ? 

6.  Should  the  sunlight  be  allowed  to  enter  our  dwellings  ? 


164  REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 


7.  How  should  the  nails  be  cared  for? 

8.  Why   is  bathing  important? 

9.  What   is  the  best  time  for  a  bath? 

10.    Explain    the    warm    glow    that    is    felt    after  a    cold    bath    and 
brisk  rubbing. 

CHAPTER    XIV. 

1.  Is  it  wise  to  allow  one's  self  to  feel  cold? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  taking  cold? 

3.  What  is  the  cause  of  "a  cold  in  the  head,"  or  "on  the  lungs"? 

4.  What   remedies  are  useful  in  case  of  being  chilled  through? 

5.  Should    we   keep    our   overcoats,    shawls,    or    furs   on   when   we 

come  into  a  warm  room?  — for  how  long  a  time? 

6.  Why    is   a  man   under   the   influence   of  liquor   not   apt   to   feel 

cold  ? 

7.  What    was    the     experience     of    Adam     Ayles     in    the    Arctic 

regions  ? 


OHAPTEE      XVI. 

THE      NERVOUS      SYSTEM. 
MAN     AND     OTHER     ANIMALS. 

USCULAE,  action,  digestion,  circulation, 
and  all  the  work  of  the  "body,  need  to 
he  directed  and  controlled.  This  wonderful 
task  is  given  to  the  nervous  system. 

Plants  have  no  power  to  think  or  feel: 
cut  a  tree,  and  the  hark  and  wood  have  no 
sense  of  pain ;  the  rose  is  neither  glad  nor 
scurry  when  you  take  it  from  the  stem  — it 
knows  nothing  of  what  is  heing  done. 

The  simplest  forms  of  animal  life  have 
very  little  of  this  nervous  power;  one  of 
them,  the  hydra  (hy'dr&),  may  he  cut  into 
pieces,  and  each  piece  will  form  a  new  hydra. 
But  animals  which  have  the  sense  of  feeling 
—those  which  can  "be  taught  hy  man— possess 
most  of  this  power. 


166 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM 
Pio.  27. 


The  nervous  system.     A,  cZr'  I  brum  ;  B,  c8r  e  bel' lum. 


PARTS    OF    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  167 

The  dog  obeys  his  master's  orders ;  horses 
are  trained  to  understand  the  slightest  word 
of  command.  The  elephant,  though  huge 
and  clumsy,  is  used  in  India  to  "build  bridges, 
move  and  pile  heavy  logs,  and  to  do  many 
other  kinds  of  work. 

But  no  other  animal  has  s£T  complete  a 
nervous  system  as  man ;  and  so,  no  other 
animal  can  think  and  plan  so  well.  He  is 
placed  at  the  head  of  living  creatures,  not  to 
"be  a  tyrant  to  torment  and  destroy  others ; 
hut  to  "protect  all  harmless  living  creatures," 
and  to  treat  none  "with  cruelty. 

PARTS     OF      THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

The  nervous  system  is  divided  into  cen- 
ters, cords,  and  nerves. 

The  most  important  center  is  the  brain; 
the  principal  cord  is  the  spinal  cord,  which 
passes  down  the  back  through  a  series  of 
holes  in  the  vertebrae ;  from  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord,  slender  white  threads,  called 
nerves,  extend  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  Other 
nerves  start  from  small  centers  or  knots  of 
nerve-matter,  near  the  backbone. 


168  THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

NERVOUS     POWER. 

The  nerve-centers  are  mainly  composed  of 
soft,  gray  matter;  the  spinal  cord  lias  a  core 
of  this  same  gray  matter,  surrounded  by 
white  nerve-fibers. 

"What  nervous  power  is,  or  how  it  is  made, 
we  do  not  know;  "but  it  begins  in  the  grajJ 
matter,  and  is  sent  along  the  white  fibers. 

The  centers  are  often  compared  to  the 
stations  of  a  telegraph  system  where  all  mes- 
sages, home  and  foreign,  are  received,  and 
whence  orders  are  sent  out  in  every  direction. 
The  cords  and  nerves  resemble,  in  the  same 
way,  the  wires  along  which  messages  are 
sent. 

THE      BRAIN. 

The  brain  is  protected  from  injury  by  the 
strong  bones  of  the  skull,  and  by  three  cov- 
erings, or  coats.  The  outer  coat  is  very  tough ; 
the  inner  ones  are  soft  and  delicate.  The 
two  principal  parts  of  the  brain  are  called 
the  cerebrum  (93^ e  brtim)  and  cerebellum 


THE     CEREBRUM. 


169 


FIG.  28. 


THE     CEREBRUM. 

The  cerebrum  is  the  part  of  trie  "brain  in 
tlie  upper,  middle,  and  front  of  the  head. 
It  has  gray  mat- 
ter on  the  out- 
side, and  white 
nerve-fibers  on 
the  inside. 

The  gray  mat- 
ter is  coiled  "back 
and  forth,  so  that 
a  great  deal  is 
packed  away  in 
this  part  of  the 
skull.  You  may 
get  a  good  idea  of 
these  wrinkles,  or 
foldings,  by  look- 
ing at  a  piece  of  brain  coral,  or  at  the  meat 
of  an  English  walnut. 

This  is  the  part  of  the  brain  by  means  of 
which  "we  think ;  and  wise  thinking  strength- 
ens it,  as  proper  exercise  strengthens  the 
muscles.  The  greater  the  power  and  activity 


Surface  of  the  cer'e  brum. 


170 


THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 


of  the  mind,  the  more  wrinkled  and  coiled 
will  the  gray  matter  of  the  cerebrum  become. 
If  this  part  of  the  brain  is  taken  away 
from  a  pigeon  (pij'ttn),  it  becomes  stupid,  and 
takes  no  notice  of  things  around  it. 

Fro.  sJ9. 


Pigeon  from  which  the  cerebrum  has  been  removed. 
THE     CEREBELLUM. 

In  the  lower,  back  part  of  the  skull,  is 
the  smaller  division  of  the  brain  called  the 
cerebellum. 

Like  the  cerebrum,  the  gray  matter  is  on 
the  outside ;  the  white  matter,  inside ;  but 
the  coilings  of  the  gray  matter  are  finer, 


THE    CEREBELLUM, 


more  like  layers  or  foldings ;  and  tlie  white 
fibers  extend  into  the  gray,  in  such,  a  man- 
ner tliat  tliey  look  somewhat  like  tlie  branch, 
of  a  tree — this  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
"  the  tree  of  life." 


Pigeon  from  which  the  cerebellum  has  been  removed. 

The  special  work  of  the  cerebellum  is  not 
fully  understood.  If  it  is  injured,  one  can 
not  use  Iris  body  as  he  wish.es ;  the  messages 
of  motion  are  not  sent  correctly,  tne  muscles 
do  not  obey  his  will,  and  lie  acts  as  if  in- 
toxicated. 

If  tlie  cerebellum  is   taken  from  pigeons, 


iT2  THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

they     make     "  uncertain,     sprawling     move- 
ments." 


Fio    31. 


THE      SPINAL     CORD. 

At  the  very  "base  of  the  brain,  is  an  im- 
portant mass  of  white  and 
gray  nerve-matter,  situ- 
ated at  the  upper  end  oi 
the  spinal  cord  ;  it  is  often 
called  the  "vital  knot," 
because  one  nerve  which 
starts  from  this  center, 
controls  the  act  of  breath- 


. 

II     the    Kinot    IS 


section  of  the  Spinal  Cord. 

a,  b.  Section  of  the  cord. 

c,  c,  c,  c.  Spinal  nerves. 

d,  d,  d,  d.  Posterior  or  sensory  roots 
of  the  spinal  nerves. 

e,  e,  e,  e.  Anterior  or  motory  roots    liear    thlS    nerve,    as    IS    the 
of  the  spinal  nerves. 

case   when    one's  neck    is 

broken,  respiration  stops  and  death  occurs 
instantly.  This  part  of  the  brain  is  so  placed 
as  to  be  protected  as  fully  as  possible,  and 
it  is  rarely  injured  except  in  death  by  hang- 
ing. 

The  spinal  cord,  as  has  been  said,  extends 
down  the  trunk  through  the  backbone.  It 
is  a  white  cord,  about  as  large  as  the  end 


THE    SPINAL    NERVES.  173 

of  a  man's  little  finger ;  down  its  whole 
length,  front  and  hack,  are  two  deep  fur- 
rows. 

THE     SPINAL     NERVES. 

Thirty-one  pairs  of  nerves  pass  off  from  the 
sides  of  the  spinal  cord,  divide  and  re-divide, 
and  send  tiny  nerve-threads  all  over  the  body. 
Touch  the  skin  ever  so  lightly  and  you  feel 
the  touch,  "because  the  cutis  is  full  of  nerve- 
ends. 

NERVE-TUBES. 

Each  nerve  appears  to  he  a  bundle  of 
small  fibers ;  when  viewed  under  a  strong 
microscope,  the  separate  fibers  are  seen  to 
be  really  very  small  tubes. 

These  nerve-tubes  do  not  branch  off  from 
larger  nerves  as  the  smaller  arteries  branch 
from  the  larger,  but  lie  side  by  side,  bound 
together  by  delicate  membranes. 

Each  tiny  nerve-tube  is  distinct  from  the 
others  as  it  passes  into  the  brain.  Were  it 
otherwise,  we  should  often  be  confused  and 
often  in  danger. 

If  the   nerve-tubes  from  your  first  finger 


174  THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

were  to  unite  with  those  from  your  thumb, 
so  as  to  make  one  large  tube,  you  could  not 
tell,  unless  you  used  your  eyes,  whether  you 
pricked  your  finger  or  your  thumb. 

If  the  nerve-tubes  from  the  feet  united 
to  make  one  large  tube,  you  could  not  know 
by  feeling,  alone,  which  foot  was  cold,  cut, 
or  bruised.  But  when  a  fly  lights  on  your 
hand,  you  do  know  perfectly  well  that  he  is 
not  on  your  face ;  the  nerves  carry  word  of 
his  presence  to  the  part  of  the  brain  which 
has  to  do  with  your  hand. 

KINDS     OF     NERVES. 

In  studying  the  heart,  you  learned  that 
two  sets  of  nerves  were  necessary  to  its 
proper  "  beating."  So  the  lungs,  brain,  and 
other  organs,  are  kept  at  work  by  certain 
nerves  and  held  from  overaction  by  other 
nerves  which  serve  as  "  brakes." 

By  other  sets  of  these  signal-lines,  we 
know  &bout  the  world  around  us.  "We  can 
not  hear  with  our  eyes,  nor  smell  with  our 
ears ;  for  the  nerves  of  sight  are  affected  by 
light  only,  those  of  hearing  by  soiind  only. 


FIBERS    OF    FEELING    AND    OF    MOTION         175 

By  the  nerves  of  smell,  we  perceive  differ- 
ent odors;  by  those  of  taste,  we  enjoy  food 
and  drink,  and  dislike  some  medicines  and 
various  disagreeable  things ;  while  "by  those 
of  touch,  we  are  told  about  the  various 
objects  with  which  we  come  in  contact  —  as, 
for  example,  -whether  they  are  hard  or  soft, 
rough  or  smooth. 

In  the  cutis,  too,  lie  the  ends  of  those 
fibers,  or  tubes,  by  means  of  which  we  re- 
ceive our  sensations  of  pain ;  and  there  are 
other  nerves  which  give  us  the  power  of 
muscular  motion. 

FIBERS     OF      FEELING     AND     OF      MOTION. 

The  two  sets  of  nerve-tubes  last  mentioned, 
though  they  look  exactly  alike,  have  two 
kinds  of  work  to  do.  However  closely  they 
may  be  bound  together,  each  performs  its 
own  task  and  never  interferes  with  that  of 
its  neighbor. 

One  set— the  fibers  of  feeling— carries  mes- 
sages to  the  brain  from  the  body ;  another 
set- -the  fibers  of  motion — brings  messages 
from  the  brain  to  the  muscles. 


176  THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

HOW      THE      NERVES     WORK. 

The  nerve-fibers  are  like  those  telegraph 
lines  on  which  messages  travel  in  a  single 
direction  only :  on  one  wire,  all  the  telegrams 
are  sent  to  the  central  office ;  while  on  the 
other,  they  are  received  from  the  central 
office. 

When  the  finger  touches  a  hot  iron,  nerve- 
ends  of  the  fibers  of  feeling  send  the  message 
along  up  the  arm  into  the  spinal  cord,  and 
thence  to  the  brain,  which  feels  the  pain. 
At  once,  the  brain  sends  back  over  the  mo- 
tion-fibers a  message  to  the  muscles  in  the 
finger,  telling  them  to  remove  it  from  the 
iron. 

All  this  is  done  in  the  twinkling  of  an 
eye;  and  the  pain,  which  seems  to  be  in  the 
finger,  is  really  perceived  in  the  brain ;  and 
yet  the  brain  itself  may  be  injured  severely 
without  suffering,  though  it  is  the  seat  of 
all  pain. 

An  iron  bar  was  once  driven  through  the 
upper  part  of  a  man's  head  and  he  felt  no 
pain. 


INJURIES    OF    THE    NERVES.  177 

INJURIES     OF     THE     NERVES. 

The  fibers  of  motion  and  of  feeling  look 
exactly  alike,  as  lias  been  said.  The  large 
nerve  of  the  arm  or  leg  is  formed  of  many  of 
these  fibers  bound  together.  Near  the  spinal 
cord,  it  is  divided ;  all  of  its  motion-fibers 
come  from  the  front  part,  all  of  its  feeling- 
fibers  from  the  back  part  of  the  cord. 

In  time  of  war,  soldiers  often  cut  the  tele- 
graph lines  leading  to  the  enemy's  camp ; 
then  no  message  can  be  given  or  sent,  till  the 
line  is  repaired. 

In  a  similar  way,  if  the  back  part  of  the 
spinal  cord,  just  where  the  nerve  goes  off  to 
the  right  foot,  is  injured,  the  sense  of  feeling 
in  the  foot  is  gone. 

You  may  prick  it,  or  burn  it,  as  much  as 
you  please ;  no  pain  will  be  felt,  because  the 
nerve  fiber  which  should  carry  the  message 
of  trouble  to  the  brain  is  injured. 

If  the  front  part  of  the  spinal  cord  is  in- 
jured at  the  same  place,  the  order  to  move 
the  foot  may  start  from  the  brain ;  but  the 
muscles  do  not  obey,  because  they  do  not  re- 


178  THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

ceive  it.  The  message  can  not  get  by  the 
broken  place  on  tne  line.  This  is  how  we 
know  there  are  two  sets  of  fibers  connected 
with  the  brain-center. 

FIG.  82. 


Nerves  of  the  face  and  necfc. 

Have  you  ever  had  your  foot  soundly 
" asleep"?  You  had  held  it  in  such  a  position 
that  the  nerves  were  pressed,  and  this  partly 
paralyzed  them,  so  that,  for  a  moment,  the 
foot  could  scarcely  move  or  feel. 


THE  CRANIAL  NERVES.          179 

If  the  spinal  cord  be  divided,  or  seriously 
diseased  or  pressed  upon,  there  is  no  feeling 
or  motion  in  any  part  of  the  body  below  the 
point  of  injury.  This  is  called  paralysis  (Pa- 
rai'ysis),  and  is  quite  common. 

THE      CRANIAL     NERVES. 

The  nerves  which  start  directly  from  the 
brain,  are  called  the  cranial  (-era'niai)  nerves. 

Among  these  are  the  nerves  of  sight, 
smell,  hearing,  and  taste;  those  which  move 
the  muscles  of  the  face ;  and  those  which  con- 
trol digestion,  respiration,  and  the  motions 
of  the  heart. 

From  one  of  these  nerves,  a  number  of 
little  branches  go  to  the  center  of  each 
tooth,  and,  in  case  a  tooth  decays  so  that 
either  the  food  or  the  air  can  reach  them, 
we  suffer  severe  pain. 

Sometimes,  the  dentist  "Mils  the  nerve" 
by  putting  against  it  creosote  (-ere'o  sotty,  or 
some  other  substance.  Then  he  takes  out  a 
piece  of  the  little  white  thread,  and  fills  the 
cavity  with  gold,  or  some  other  material,  to 
prevent  further  decay. 


180  THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


THOUGHT. 

But  the  brain  lias  other  important  work 
to  do  besides  merely  keeping*  us  alive.  It  is 
the  organ  of  the  mind.  By  it,  we  think  and 
reason :  how,  we  do  not  know ;  "but  God  has 
given  us  this  wonderful  instrument,  and  with 
it  we  may  do  either  good  or  evil. 

Every  time  one  does  right,  it  is  easier  for 
him  to  keep  on  doing  right,  because  he 
strengthens  that  part  of  the  brain  which  is 
used  by  the  good  powers  of  his  mind. 

Every  time  he  does  wrong,  he  weakens 
this  part,  and  strengthens  the  part  used  by 
the  powers  of  his  mind  for  evil — making  it 
much  easier  to  do  -wrong  the  next  time. 
Thus  we  form  habits  that  control  us. 

In  this  "way,  boys  and  girls  who  are  mean 
and  cruel,  whose  thoughts  are  impure  and 
lives  untrue,  make  the  men  and  women,  who 
do  the  mischief  and  sin  of  the  world ;  while 
those  whose  lives  are  pure  and  true,  make 
the  men  and  women  who  are  honored  and 
loved. 

One    reason    why   it    is    almost    impossible 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.         181 

for  a  drunkard  to  reform,  is,  because  alcohol 
has  deadened  that  part  of  the  brain  which 
he  needs  to  use  in  order  to  master  his  appe- 
tite. 

The  best  quality  of  brain,  as  in  the  case 
of  gifted  men  and  women,  seems  to  suffer 
the  most. 

HYGIENE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

Healthy  blood  is  needed  in  order  to  have 
healthy  , nerves;  and  proper  food,  fresh  air, 
and  exercise,  are  necessary  to  healthy  blood. 

To  keep  the  mind  strong  and  happy,  we 
must  observe  the  rules  of  right  living,  and  so 
protect  the  brain.  When  the  mind  is  hard  at 
•work,  an  extra  supply  of  blood  is  sent  to  this 
organ;  if  it  is  over-worked,  too  much  blood 
and  energy  are  thus  taken  from  other  parts 
of  the  body,  which  then  become  weak  and 
feeble.  Neither  brain-work  nor  muscle-work 
must  be  neglected,  for  both  are  important. 

Rest  must  also  be  given  to  this  busy  organ, 
and  quiet,  dreamless  sleep  is  the  best  brain- 
rest.  Sleeplessness  is  often  one  of  the  first 
signs  of  insanity,  that  terrible  disease  in 


182  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

which  the  mind  loses,  more  or  less,  its  con- 
trol over  the  brain. 

Blows  on  the  head  are  dangerous,  and 
children  in  their  play,  as  well  as  older  per- 
sons, should  never  give  them. 

Causes  which  weaken,  other  parts  of  the 
"body,  weaken  the  "brain  as  well.  Hence,  im- 
pure air,  unwholesome,  ill-cooked  food,  un- 
suitable clothing,  lack  of  cleanliness  —  all 
these  tend  to  injure  not  only  the  brain,  but 
the  whole  nervous  system. 

The  lack  of  properly  prepared  food  and 
other  unhealthful  ways  of  living,  *  often  lead 
men  and  women  to  use  alcohol,  tobacco,  and 
opium,  to  deaden  their  feelings  of  restless 
discomfort. 

ALCOHOL  AND  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

You  have  learned  how  alcohol  injures  the 
organs  of  digestion,  so  that  the  food  we  eat 
can  not  make  us  good  blood;  and  how  it 
unfits  the  blood  for  the  best  use  of  the 
body. 

About  one-fifth  of  all  the  blood  in  the 
body  is  in  the  brain.  Through  and  around 


ALCOHOL    AND    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.        183 

the  soft  gray  matter,  in  and  out  among  the 
white  fibers,  are  the  tiny  blood-vessels. 

You  know,  already,  that  these  enlarge 
from  the  drinking  of  alcohol ;  the  blood  then 
sometimes  stagnates,  and,  at  other  times, 
rushes  through  them  too  violently.  No  won- 
der a  headache  so  often  follows  the  glass  of 
liquor. 

Sometimes,  an  artery  bursts,  because  its 
walls  have  been  weakened  by  alcohol  so  that 
they  can  not  bear  the  extra  strain ;  the  blood 
flows  out,  and  death  occurs  at  once.  This  is 
called  apoplexy  (£p'  o  pisx  y),  and  may  result 
from  other  causes  than  the  use  of  alcohol. 

But  this  is  not  all.  The  brain  asks  for 
good  blood,  but  it  gets  injured  and  unhealthy 
blood.  Of  course  the  brain  can  not  be  healthy 
when  made  of  poor  material. 

A  boy  can  not  whittle  well  with  a  broken, 
rusty  knife ;  a  musician  can  not  bring  sweet 
music  out  of  a  piano  whose  strings  are  not 
in  tune ;  and  the  mind  can  not  do  good 
thinking,  if  it  has  to  work  through  an  un- 
healthy brain. 

A  large  share  of  the  water  in  the  body  is 


184  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

contained  in  the  brain  and  the  nerves,  and 
alcohol  unites  with  this  water,  taking  it 
away  from  the  parts  where  it  is  needed.  More 
alcohol  goes  to  the  brain  of  the  drinking 
man,  than  to  any  other  organ  except  the 
liver ;  its  effect  on  the  nerve-substance  is 
deadening— paralyzing— as  you  have  learned. 
.  The  drinking  man  may  not  feel  pain  from 
his  inflamed  stomach,  partly  because  it  has 
but  few  nerves  of  feeling,  and  partly  because 
these  are  out  of  order  and  fail  to  carry  mes- 
sages correctly.  Supposing  that  the  alcohol 
has  been  a  good  friend,  he  satisfies  the  crav- 
ing it  has  caused,  by  another  dose. 

Perhaps  he  takes  it  under  the  name  of 
"  Bitters,"  or  "  Patent  Medicine,"  ignorant  of 
the  fact  that  most  of  these  are  only  extracts 
of  herbs  mixed  with  alcohol,  and  that  the 
harm  done  by  the  alcohol  more  than  bal- 
ances the  good  gained  from  the  herbs. 

When  the  brain  is  partly  paralyzed  by  this 
narcotic,  the  man  does  not  know  what  he 
is  doing— his  power  of  thought  is  deranged, 
and  that  of  correct  thought  is  gone  —  he  is 
"crazy  with  liquor."  He  believes  himself 


ALCOHOL    AND    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.       185 

stronger    in   body    and    mind ;    lie    sometimes 
talks  faster,  but  thinks  less  wisely.* 

"  The  word  of  a  drunkard,  especially  with 
regard  to  his  drinking  habits,  can  not  be 
trusted.  An  old,  but  true,  proverb  says:  'A 
drunkard  is  a  liar.'  His  love  of  truth  seems 
entirely  destroyed.  And  'the  tendency  to 


*"  Among  the  immediate  effects  of  a  few  doses  of  alcohol,  are 
drunkenness,  and,  in  rarer  cases,  crazy  drunkenness  and  alcoholic 
convulsions  or  fits. 

"  Still  further  use  of  the  poison,  brings  on  delirium  tremens 
(d5  llr'  I  fcm  trS'  mgne),  and  various  maladies  of  the  stomach,  liver, 
kidneys,  lungs,  and  other  organs  of  the  "body ;  insanity,  and  another 
disease  of  the  nervous  system,  called  dipsomania  (dip  so  ma'  ni  a) ;  the 
latter  is  an  intense  craving  for  alcoholic  or  other  narcotic  sub- 
stances. 

"This  uncontrollable  desire  for  liquor  does  not  appear  in  those 
who  have  never  used  alcoholic  drinks  ;  but  sometimes,  the  first  in- 
dulgence awakens  the  desire.  With  others,  only  a  longer  use  will 
produce  it. 

"  Most  persons,  in  their  earlier  indulgence,  think  themselves 
capable  of  controlling  their  habits,  and  indulge  without  appre- 
hension of  danger. 

"Even  when  that  danger  is  apparent  to  others,  it  may  not  be 
to  them,  until  the  desire  and  the  habit  are  too  strong,  the  will  too 
weak,  or  the -indifference  to  consequences  too  great  for  any  effectual 
effort  to  change  this  course. 

"The  longer  the  indulgence,  the  stronger  the  habit,  the  feebler 
the  resistance,  and  the  greater  the  indifference  —  until  the  victim 
is  swallowed  up  in  his  self-invited  destruction. 

"  Prom  this' view  of  the  facts,  it  becomes  too  obvious  to  need  re- 
peating, that  the  remedy  for  drunkenness  as  a  vice,  and  inebriety 
as  a  disease,  is  abstinence  from  alcoholic  drinks. 

' '  It  would  be  an  insult  to  the  intelligence  of  the  reader  to  say 
that  the  remedy  for  drunkenness  is  the  use  of  wine  or  beer,  of 
which  alcohol  is  the  essential  and  active  ingredient."— Prof.  Palmer. 


186  THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

untruthfulness    often    descends    to    his    chil- 
dren.' "—Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson. 

Many  railroad  companies  will  not  employ 
drinking  men  as  engineers,  since  they  can 
not  trust  them  to  run  their  engines  safely. 
Many  "battles  have  been  lost,  because  the 
generals  in  command  were  so  intoxicated 
that  they  could  not  properly  order  their  troops. 

If  more  liquor  is  taken,  the  paralyzed 
nerves  can  not  control  the  muscles,  the  man 
staggers,  his  hands  tremble,  and  are  beyond 
his  proper  control.  The  brain  is  still  more 
affected,  and  the  drunken  talk  and  actions 
show  too  plainly  that  alcohol  has  conquered 
all  the  better  part  of  the  man. 

It  is  fully  proved  that  a  large  number 
of  crimes  for  which  men  are  sent  to  prisons 
or  jails,  are  committed  when  they  are  in 
this  condition. 

A  noted  murderer  confessed  that  never, 
but  once,  did  he  feel  any  remorse.  Then  he 
was  about  to  kill  a  babe,  and  the  little  crea- 
ture looked  up  into  his  face  and  smiled. 

"  But,"  said  he,  "  I  drank  a  large  glass  of 
brandy,  and  then  I  didn't  care." 


ALCOHOL    AND    SLEEP.  187 

The  poison  deadened  his  nerves  and  "brain, 
the  better  part  of  his  mind  — his  conscience 
—  was  thus  put  to  sleep,  and  the  evil  of  his 
nature  controlled  him.  Many  a  man  spends 
the  most  of  his  life  behind  prison  bars,  for 
crimes  that  he  would  have  shrunk  from  with 
horror,  had  he  not  been  drunk  when,  he  com- 
mitted them. 

The  drinking"  of  a  very  little  alcohol  is 
enough  to  deaden,  to  some  extent,  the  noblest 
powers  of  a  man's  mind,  and  to  make  him 
careless  about  the  results  of  his  actions.  But 
anger,  cruelty,  fierceness  — the  baser  tenden- 
cies, in  which  he  is  like  savages  and  wild 
beasts,  are  not  overcome  until  he  is  "dead 
drunk." 

Then  all  signs  of  life  are  gone,  save  breath- 
ing and  the  motions  of  his  heart.  Probably 
the  brain  of  a  man  who  has  once  been  "  dead 
drunk,"  can  never  be  so  strong  and  perfect 
as  it  otherwise  would  have  tJeen. 

ALCOHOL     AND     SLEEP. 

The  exact  cause  of  sleep  is  unknown ;  but 
we  do  know  that  in  healthy  sleep,  the  heart 


188  THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

"beats  more  slowly  than  when  one  is  awake; 
the  "breathing  is  less  rapid ;  and  less  "blood  is 
coursing  through  the  brain. 

Alcohol  interferes  with  all  this,  and  the 
sleep  caused  "by  its  use  is  not  healthy  brain- 
rest,  but  a  heavy  stupor  from  which  the 
drinker  wakens  tired  and  often  suffering. 

A  narcotic  has  no  power  to  cure  fatigue — 
it  can  only  deaden  the  nerves  for  a  while, 
and  thus  prevent  one  from  knowing  that  he 
is  weary  while  under  its  influence. 

ALCOHOL     AND     THE     MIND. 

No  man  can  explain  the  connection  be- 
tween body  and  soul,  the  brain  and  the  mind. 
We  simply  know  that  a  sound  mind  goes 
with  a  sound  body,  a  healthy  mind  with  a 
healthy  brain.  Alcohol  never  helps  a  healthy 
body.* 

The  craving  for  itself  which  the  poison 
sets  up  in  the  system,  tends  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  health,  character,  friends,  happiness, 

*  "Indirectly,  alcoholism  favors  the  production  of  nearly  all  din- 
eases,  by  lessening  the  power  of  resisting  their  causes  ;  and  it  con- 
tributes to  their  fatality,  by  impairing  the  ability  to  tolerate  or 
overcome  them. "— Prqf.  Austin  Flint. 


TOBACCO     AND     THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM.        189 

usefulness,  mind,  and  life.  The  only  safe 
course  is  never  to  drink  alcohol  in  any  form  ; 
or,  if  the  habit  is  formed,  to  "break  it  off,  at 
once  and  forever.  The  sudden  ceasing  to 
drink  is  not  a  danger,  but  the  wise  wa3'  of 
recovering  lost  health.  Men  in  state-prisons 
are  not  made  sick  by  having  their  supply 
of  liquor  taken  entirely  away. 

TOBACCO     AND     THE      NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

Dizziness  and  partial  paralysis  are  com- 
mon results  of  the  use  of  tobacco,  especially 
by  the  young.  The  deadening  of  the  nerves 
explains  the  "quieting"  power  of  cigars. 

When  the  first  effect  of  the  tobacco  has 
passed  away,  the  abused  nerves  are  very 
likely  to  tell  the  user  of  their  discomfort, 
by  leading  him  to  be  irritable  and  unhappy. 

What  would  you  think  of  n  3-011  ng1  man 
who,  if  his  father  gave  him  $1,000  to  start 
him  in  business,  should  at  6  rice  burn  up 
$500,  and  then  begin  work  with  the  rest  ? 

Just  so  foolish  is  the  boy  who  destroys 
the  God-given  powers  of  his  mind  and  bod 37, 
by  the  use  of  tobacco.  He  is  cheating1  him- 


190  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

self,  throwing  away  a  large  part  of  tne  en- 
ergy and  strength  which  he  needs  for  the 
work  of  life.* 

It  is  even  worse  than  this ;  for  often  one 
of  the  first  effects  of  tobacco  and  alcohol  is 
to  make  one  ungentlemaiily  and  forgetful  of 
the  rights  and  feelings  of  others. 

Tobacco-users  often  smoke  in  the  faces  of 
other  people,  without  once  tl linking  ot  the 
impoliteness  of  such  an  act,  or  that  the  odor 
of  the  tobacco  may  make  others  very  sick; 
the  smoker  "does  not  think"  or  does  not  care 
— he  is  enjoying  "a  good  smoke." 

These  are  not  gentlemanly  acts,  but  they 
are  the  very  habits  to  which  the  use  of 
tobacco  often  tends. 

A  bo3r  who  uses  tobacco,  must  not  only 
pay  .out  much  money,  but  must  give  up  a 
large  share  of  his  health  and  manhood,  in 
return  for  its  use. 


*  Young  men  who  use  tobacco,  say  :  "It  does  not  hurt  me."  Docs 
not  hurt  you!  "Wait  and  see.  In  years  to  come,  when  you  ought  to 
be  in  your  prime,  you  will  be  a  poor,  nervous,  irritable,  nerve-dried 
creature.  Your  hands  will  tremble,  your  head  will  ache,  your  sleep 
will  be  fitful  and  disturbed,  and  your  stomach  out  of  order. 

Sins  against  the  laws  of  health,  not  punished  at  one  end  of  life, 
are  sure  to  be  at  the  other.— (Adapted  from  J.  R.  Black.) 


OPIUM    AND    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM  .  191 

In  Germany,  children  under  sixteen  are 
forbidden  to  use  it ;  the  same  is  true  of  the 
pupils  of  the  public  schools  in  France;  and 
of  the  students  in  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  at  Annapolis,  and  the  Military 
School  Tfc  West  Point. 

Those  who  run  races  or  engage  in  rowing 
matches,  are  denied  alcohol  and  tobacco  while 
in  "training."  Each  man  would  be  glad  to 
have  his  opponent  drink  a  single  glass  of 
liquor  just  before  the  contest,  so  as  to  weaken 
him  and  make  his  nerves  unsteady. 

OPIUM      AND     THE     NERVOUS     SYSTEM. 

The  opiuin-eater  looks  old  while  yet 
young.  It  is  harder  to  break  off  from  the 
use  of  this  drug,  than  from  that  of  alcohol 
or  tobacco. 

In  sickness,  it  often  relieves  pain  tempo- 
rarily ;  but  when  long  continued,  and  always 
if  taken  in  health,  it  paralyzes  the  nerves 
and  throws  the  telegraph  lines  of  the  body 
out  of  order,  so  that  no  correct  message  can 
be  given  or  received,  and  deranges,  often  be- 
yond repair,  the  whole  system. 


192  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

It  is  a  true  narcotic.  If  a  certain  amount 
quiets  the  brain  to-day,  more  must  "be  taken 
next  week  to  produce  the  same  effect.  The 
opium-user  is  so  enslaved  oy  the  poison,  that 
he  will  lie,  or  steal,  or  commit  even  worse 
crimes,  to  obtain  the  fatal  drug. 

CHLORAL  AND  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

Chloral  is  also  used  to  quiet  the  "brain 
and  induce  sleep.  It,  too,  must  often  be  in- 
creased in  dose.  Its  continued  use  greatly 
injures  the  health,  and  there  is  constant 
danger  of  taking  a  fatal  overdose. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  work  of  the  nervous  system? 

2.  Name  the  parts  of  the  nervous  system. 

3.  What  is  nervous  power?  — where  does  it  begin?  — along  -what  is 

it  sent? 

4.  Compare  centers,   cords,  and  nerves,  to   telegraph   stations   and 

wires. 

5.  How  is  the  brain  protected? 

3.    What   are   the    parts   of  the   brain   called  ?  — describe  each    part. 
and  its  special  work. 

7.  What  is  the  "vital  knot?"— where  is  it? 

8.  Describe  the  spinal  cord;  — the  spinal  nerves. 

9.  Do  the  nerve-tubes  unite  on  their  way  to  the  brain?  — what  is 

the  advantage  of  this  ? 

10.   What    is    the    work    of   th?    fibers    of    feeling?  — the    fibers    of 
motion?    (See  other  questions  on  page  202.) 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

SPECIAL  SENSES  — TASTE. 
THE  ORGAN  OF  TASTE. 

|HE  tongue  helps  in  the  acts  of  chewing, 
swallowing,  and  speaking ;  but  it  is  the 
special  organ  of  taste. 

The  nerves  of  taste  are  mainly  in  the 
papillso  of  the  tongue;  as  they  are  covered 
by  a  thin  skin — the  mucous  membrane — food 
must  be  dissolved  so  as  to  pass  through  this 
skin  before  it  can  be  really  tasted. 

If  one  eats  rapidly,  he  not  only  injures 
his  stomach,  but  loses  much  of  the  flavor  of 
the  food.  When  the  tongue  is  coated,  as  in 
a  fever,  the  sense  of  taste  is  impaired  or, 
sometimes,  lost. 

The  nerves  of  the  front  part  of  the  tongue 
taste  sweet  and  sour  things ;  those  of  the 
back  part,  salt  and  bitter  things.  The  former 


194 


SPECIAL  SENSES  — TASTE. 


are  connected  with,  those  of  the  face,  so,  when 
you  eat  something  sour,  your  face  is  likely 
to  "pucker  up."  The  latter  are  connected 


FIG.  33. 


The  tongue,  showing  the  three  Hnds  of  papiUce—the  conical  (D),  the  whip-like  (K 
I),  the  entrenched  (H,  L) ;  E,  F,  G,  nerves ;  C,  glottis. 


with  the  nerves  of  the  stomach,  hence  bitter 
tastes  often  make  us  "sick  at  the  stomach.'' 


THE    ORGAN    OF    SMELL.  195 

SMELL. 
THE     ORGAN      OF      SMELL. 

The  nose  is  the  organ  of  smell.  It  is 
composed  of  "bone  and  gristle.  It  is  con- 
nected with  the  hack  part  of  the  mouth, 
and  is  lined,  like  the  throat,  with  the  mu- 
cous memhrane.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts 
called  nostrils. 

The  nerves  of  smell  enter  the  nostrils 
through  small  openings  in  the  hone  at  the 
back  of  the  nose. 

The  sense  of  smell  helps  us  to  decide  what 
things  to  eat.  If,  for  instance,  the  nose  were 
on  one  side  of  the  mouth,  we  should  not  he  so 
likely,  as  we  are  now,  to  smell  food  "before 
eating  it,  and  should  he  in  much  more  dan- 
ger of  eating  things  unfit  for  food. 

When  we  must  swallow  something  that 
is  not  pleasant  to  the  taste,  like  some  kinds 
of  medicine,  it  is  well  to  shut  the  eyes  and 
hold  the  nose  ;  it  will  not  he  so  disagreeahleT 
if  we  use  the  sense  of  taste  alone. 

Impure  air  often  warns  us  of  its  presence 
through  our  sense  of  smell. 


196 


SPECIAL    SENSES  — HEARING. 


HEARING. 
THE     ORGAN     OF     HEARING. 

The  ear  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  parts  in 
the  whole  body  to  study  or  understand.  It  is 
divided  into  the  outer,  middle,  and  inner  ear. 

When  we  speak 
of  the  ears,  we  usu- 
ally mean  the  curi- 
ously shaped  pieces 
of  gristle  on  the 
sides  of  the  head. 
Their  principal  use 
seems  to  be  to  help 
catch  the  sound. 

The  opening 
which  passes  from 
these  into  the  head 
is  called  the  auditory  (auditory)  canal.  This 
extends  to  the  middle  ear,  or  the  "drum" 
of  the  ear,  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  The 
"head"  of  the  "drum"  is  a  delicate  mem- 
brane which  is  stretched  tightly  across  the 
inner  end  of  the  auditory  canal. 

Both  the  middle  and  the  inner  ear  (which 


The   ear. 


CARE    OF    THE    EYES.  197 

lies  deeper  in  the  head)  are  in  the  solid  bone 
of  the  skull,  and  are  thus  carefully  protected 
from  injury. 

A  tube  leads  from  the  middle  ear  to  the 
throat.  Perhaps  you  have  noticed  that  old 
people  who  are  a  little  deaf,  open  their  mouths 
when  they  want  to  hear  distinctly.  This  is 
to  let  the  sound  pass  in  through  this  tube, 
as  well  as  through  the  auditory  canal. 

Very  small  "bones,  strangely  curved  tubes, 
a  little  water,  and  millions  of  tiny  nerves  of 
hearing,  are  found  in  the  middle  and  in  the 
inner  ear. 

CARE     OF     THE     EARS. 

Yery  cold  water  should  not  be  used  in  the 
ears,  nor  should  a  draught  of  cold  air  be  al- 
lowed to  enter  them. 

No  hard  substance,  like  a  pin,  should  be 
pushed  into  the  canal ;  for  it  might  break 
the  "head  of  the  drum,"  and  when  this  hap- 
pens, the  sense  of  hearing  is  injured. 

If  there  is  too  much  ear-wax,  it  will  often 
fall  out  of  itself,  in  fine  scales.  It  may,  how- 
ever, accumulate  and  require  to  be  carefully 


198 


SPECIAL    SENSES  — SIGHT. 


removed.  A  "box  on  the  ear"  should  never 
be  given;  there  is  great  danger  of  its  making 
one  deaf.  Pulling  the  ears  is  a  cruel  and  in- 
jurious practice. 

TOBACCO     AND     HEARING. 

Ringing  sounds  in  the  ears  and  partial 
deafness  sometimes  result  from  the  use  of 
tobacco. 


SIGHT. 

THE     ORGAN     OF     SIGHT. 

The  eyes  are  placed  in  deep,  bony  sockets 
FlG-  SB.  in  the  head,  and  are 

protected      by       the 
brows  and  lids. 

The  eyebrows  are 
projections  of  skin 
covered  with  short, 
stiff  hairs ;  the  eye- 
lids are  two  flaps,  or 
curtains,  of  some- 
what gristly  skin. 
They  have  oil  and  sweat-glands  like  the  rest 


The  eye. 


THE    ORGAN     OF    SIGHT.  199 

of  the  skin,  and  a  row  of  hairs  grows  from 
each  edge.  These  hairs,  or  eyelashes,  help  to 
kuep  dust  out  of  the  eye. 

The  tears  come  from  a  gland  that  lies 
above  the  eye,  and  just  within  the  outer  edge 
of  its  roof.  Every  time  you  wink,  some  of 
this  moisture  is  washed  over  the  eyeball, 
clearing  it  of  dust.  The  overflow  passes  "by 
a  small  tube,  into  the  nose. 

Grief,  or  even  great  joy,  makes  the  tears 
flow  so  freely  that  they  run  down  over  the 
cheeks.  The  eyeball,  "by  means  of  nerves  and 
muscles,  can  move  inward,  outward,  upward, 
and  downward. 

The  "white  of  the  eye"  is  a  hard  coat 
which  protects  the  parts  "beneath.  The  colored 
circle  — that  which  makes  us  call  the  eyes 
black,  or  blue,  or  brown — is  the  iris  (I'ris).  It 
is  like  a  circular  curtain  with  a  hole  in  the 
center  called  the  pupil. 

When  the  light  is  too  bright,  the  pupil 
contracts ;  when  too  dim,  it  enlarges.  This 
is  done  by  muscular  fibers  that  run  round 
the  hole  somewhat  like  the  string  in  a  hat- 
lining  ;  they  contract  and  so  draw  the  sides 


200  SPECIAL    SENSES  — SIGHT. 

of  the  pupil  together,  or  stretch  and  make 
it  larger. 

A  cat's  eyes  can  do  this  better  and  more 
quickly  than  ours.  They  need  to  he  able  to 
see  their  prey  in  the  dark,  and  so  can  open 
their  pupils  very  wide. 

Back  of  the  iris  are  various  fluids  and 
parts,  all  of  which,  help  us  to  see.  The  fine 
nerves  of  sight  form  a  delicate  expansion 
or  coat,  which  is  the  inner  lining  of  the  eye. 

CARE     OF     THE     EYES. 

Looking  at  a  bright  light  or  directly  at 
the  sun,  dazzles  the  eyes  and  may  greatly 
injure  them.  "Weakness  of  vision  and  some- 
times blindness  result  from  allowing  sun- 
light or  an  artificial  light,  to  shine  directly 
into  an  infant's  eyes. 

Squinting  or  rolling  the  eyes,  even  "  for 
fun,"  is  a  dangerous  practice,  because  it 
strains  the  muscles  which  should  hold  the 
eyeball  in  place. 

School  seats  ought  not  to  face  the  win- 
dows, and  one  should  never  read  or  write 
with  strong  sunlight  falling  on  book  or 


TOBACCO    AND    SIGHT.  201 

paper.  Reading  in  the  twilight,  or  on  the 
cars  when  in  motion,  strains  the  eyes. 

In  reading  in  the  evening,  "be  sure  you 
do  not  face  the  artificial  light ;  let  the  lamp 
be  shaded  and  the  light  fall  from  behind ; 
for  writing,  the  lamp  should  be  behind,  and 
at  the  left,  so  that  the  shadow  of  the  hand 
will  not  be  in  the  way  of  the  pen. 

A  lighted  lamp,  standing  on  a  white  or 
red  cloth,  and  facing  a  person,  as  at  the  tea 
table,  is  very  trying  to  the  eyes;  the  cloth 
should  be  of  a  neutral  tint,  drab  or  brown, 
and  the  light  so  placed  as  to  be  above  the 
level  of  the  eyes. 

Sleeping-rooms  should  be  partly  darkened, 
so  that  oil  waking  in  the  morning,  the 
eyes  may  not  be  required  to  meet  suddenly 
a  bright  light. 

Cinders  may  be  removed  from  the  eye, 
by  a  little  loop  of  fine  thread  or  hair. 

TOBACCO     AND     SIGHT. 

Imperfect  sight,  and  specks  of  light  danc- 
ing before  the  eyes,  sometimes  result  from 
the  use  of  tobacco. 


202  SPECIAL    SENSES  — SIGHT. 

A.  certain   kind  of  blindness  is   caused  b 
this  drug,  and  is  cured  "by  stopping  its  use. 


REVIEW      QUESTIONS. 

1.  Where  are    the  nerves  of  taste? 

2.  "Which  of  them,  are  connected  with  the  nerves  of  the  stomach  V 

with  those  of  the  face  ? 

3.  Describe  the  nose. 

•i.  How  does  it  act  as  a  sentinel? 

5.  Describe  the  ear. 

6.  What  care  should  be  taken  of  the  ears? 

7.  How  does  tobacco  affect  the  sense  of  hearing? 

8.  How  is  the  eye  protected?  — how  kept  free  from  dust? 

9.  How  is  the  eyeball  moved? 

10.  Describe  the  eye. 

11.  Why   can   a  cat  see   better   in  the  dark  than  we  can? 

12.  How  are  the  eyes  often  injured? 

13.  How  should  a  light  he  placed  for  reading  or  writing? 

14.  How  does  tobacco  affect  the  sense  of  sight? 

CHAPTER     XVI. 

1.  Describe    the    messages    sent    and    received,     when    the    finger 

touches  a  hot  iron. 

2.  Where  is  pain  really  perceived  ? 

3.  What   causes  your  foot  to  get   "asleep"? 

4.  What  is  the  most  important  work  of  the  brain  ? 

5.  How  does  one  form  good  habits?— how  evil  ones? 

6.  How  does  the  power  of  hahit   make    it  hard  for  a  drunkard  to 

reform  ? 

7.  How  do  unhealthy  ways  of  living  lead  to  the  use  of  narcotics  V 

8.  What  is  apoplexy? 

9.  What  is  the  danger  in  using  "Bitters"  and  "Patent  Medicines"? 

10.  Why  does  a  drunken  man  stagger? 

11.  What  powers  of  the  mind  are  first  deadened  by  alcohol?  — what 

powers  are  the  last  to  yield? 

12.  Explain  the  "quieting"  power  of  cigars. 

13.  Does  opium  furnish  a  real  cure  for  pain  ? 


INDEX. 


A  -  PAGE 

Abdomen 96 

Absorptive  power  of  the  skin.  147 

Absorption  of  food 97 

Acetous  fermentation 23 

Air,  The 114 

Albucasis 30 

Alcohol 9 

"    a  Narcotic. 12 

"    a  Poison 10 

"    and  Bread 19 

"    and  Cold 153 

"    and  Life 157 

"    and  Sleep 187 

"    and  Water 12 

"    and  Work 83 

"    Appetite  for 13 

"    Cost  of 34 

"    Discovery  of 29 

"    Effect  upon  Blood 136 

"      Brain 188 

"      Circulation 137 

"  "      Digestion 100 

"  "     Heat  of  body..  .  154 

"  "      Heart 138 

"      Kidneys 106 

"      Life 157 

"  "      Liver 105 

"  "      Lungs 122 

"  "      Mind 188 

"  "      Muscles 61 

"     Nervous  System.  182 
"  "     Stomach 100 


PAGE 

Alcohol  not  a  Food TV 

"    Origin  of 9 

"    Properties  of 9 

' '    Uses  of 9 

Alimentary  Canal 88 

Anatomy 52 

Ancestors,  Our 161 

Aorta 129 

Apoplexy 183 

Arteries 127 

Auricles 128 

Ayles,  Adam 155 


Bacteria 16 

Ball-and-socket  joint 56 

Barley 18 

Bathing 146 

Beef. 61 

Beer 18,  62,  77 

Bile 104 

Bitters 184 

Bleeding 135 

Blindness 202 

Blood,  The 125 

Body,  Positions  of 53 

Bones,  The 42 

"  Table  of 51,  52 

Brakes,  The 174 

Brain 168 

"  Exercise  of. 181 

Bread...  1'J 


204 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Breast-bone 48 

Breathing 109 

"    Hygiene  of 115 

Bronchial  TiToos 112 

Bronchitis...  ..  117 


Canal,  Food 88 

Capillaries 1 14,  128,  137 

Carbonic  acid 10,    20 

Cartilage 44 

Cavities 50 

Cerebellum 170 

Cerebrum 169 

Chloral 39,  104 

"    and  the  Nervous  System.  192 

Chloroform 39 

Choking 112 

Chyle 98 

Chyme 97 

Cider 9,  21,  80 

Cigarettes 32 

Cilia,  The ..  113 

Circulation 125-140 

Clavicle 51 

Clothing ..150 

Clotting  of  Blood 126 

Coffee 74 

Cold,  A 117,  152 

Collar-bones,  The    48,  51 

Complexion,  The 145 

Connective-Tissue 58 

Consumption 117,  123 

Cooking 74 

Contraction,  Muscular 58,  61 

Cords,  Vocal 112 

Corns     54 

Cosmetics 147 

Cranial  Nerves — 179 

Croup 117 

Curvature  of  the  Spine 53 

Cuticle,  The. 142 


PAGE 

Cutis,  The 141 


Delirium  Tremens 185 

Diaphragm 50,  109 

Digestion 87-108 

Diphtheria 119 

Distillation 25 

Drains 118,  143 

Drinking-water 68,  118,  119 

Drunkards 14 

Dyspepsia 93 


E 


Ear,  The 

Eating,  Rapid. . 

Eggs 

Elbow,  The 


...  196 

.93,  99 

...     70 

.     49 


Epiglottis Ill 

Esophagus 88,  95 

Ether 11 

Exercise,  Brain 181 

"    Muscular 59,  60 

Expansion,  Muscular v  58 

Expiration 109 

Eye,  The 198 

F 

Fats,  The 70 

Fermentation  15 

' '    Acetous 23 

"    Vinous 16 

Fever,  Typhoid 119 

Food  65 

"    Absorption  of 97 

"    Cooking  of 74 

"    Definition  of 65 

"    Digestion  of 87,108 

' '    Heat-making 70-72 

"    Mineral 67-69 

"    Need  of 88 

"    Tissue-making 69 


INDEX. 


,205 


PAGE 

Foot,  The 49,  52 

Frost-bite 154 

Fruit 76 

G 

Gall-bladder 104 

Gastric  Juice 96 

Gin 28 

Glands,  The  Salivary 92 

Grains,  Alcohol  from 18 

Gristle 44,  45 


Hair,  The 145 

Hair-dyes     147 

Hand,  The 49,  51 

Head 46,  51 

Hearing 196 

Heart 128 

Heat  of  Body   149-156 

Heredity 159 

Hinge-joints   56 

Hip-bones,  The  48 

Humerus 48,  51 

Hygiene , 52 

"    of  the  Nervous  System  ..  181 


Inorganic  Bodies 41 

Inspiration 109 

Insurance 157 

Intestines,  The 97 

Iris 199 

Iron..  69 


Joints 55 

Jellies..,  ...23,    44 


Kidneys 106 

Knee-pan 49,    52 


PAGE 

L 

Lacteals 98 

Larynx 113 

Lees 17 

Liquors,  distilled 28 

"    drugged 28 

"    fermented 21 

Lime 69 

Liver 104 

Lungs,  The Ill,  112 

"    Work  of  the 114 

M 

Malt 18 

Marrow  44 

Mead 161 

Meals 99 

Milk 73 

Mucous  Membrane 141 

Mumps,   The 92 

Muscles,   The.. 57 

"    Involuntary 59 

"    Voluntary 59 

Mummy,  The 12 


Nails,  The 145 

Narcotic  Habit 39 

Narcotics 11 

Nerves,  The 174 

Nerve-fibers 175 

Nerve-tubes 173 

Nervous  Power 168 

Nervous  System 165-192 

Nicotine 31 

Nose,   The ..  195 


(Esophagus,  see  Esophagus. 

Oil-glands,  The 144 

Oils,   The 7.0 


206 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Opium ...  37,  104: 

"  and  the  Nervous  System.  191 

Organs 41 

"  of  Digestion 88 

Organic  bodies 41 

Oxygen 114 


Pancreatic  Juice 98 

Papillae 142 

Paralysis 179 

Patella,  The 52 

Patent  Medicines 184 

Pepsin 96,  102 

Perspiration,  The 143 

Phosphorus 69 

Physiology 52 

Pleurisy 117 

Pneumonia 117 

Poison 10 

Pores 143 

Positions  of  the  body 53 

Preserves 23,  24 

Pulse. 133 

Pupil 199 

R 

Radius 48,    51 

Respiration  109 

"    Diseases  of 117 

Rest 60,  188 

Ribs,  The 47 

S 

St.  Martin,  Alexis 103 

Saliva,  The 92 

Salivary  Glands 92 

Salt 68 

Scapula 51 

Secretion,  Definition  of 89 

Senses,  The 193 

Septum 128 

Settlings 17 

Shoes  ...  54 


PAGE 

Shoulder-blades,  The 51 

Sight,  Sense  of 198 

Skeleton,  The 41 

Skin,  The 141-148 

Skull,  The 46 

Sleep 187,  188 

"    by  narcotics. 188 

Smell,  Sense  of 195 

Soothing-syrup 38 

Speech,  Organs  of 112 

Spinal  cord 172 

Spinal  nerves 173 

Spine,   The 47 

Spores 16 

Starch 9,18,    71 

Sternum 48 

Stimulants 81 

Stomach 96 

Sugar 10,  18,    72 

Sunlight 148 

Sunstroke 144 

Sweat..,  ....  143 


Taste,  Sense  of 193 

Tea 74 

Tears,  The 199 

Teeth,  The 89 

"    Care  of  the 91 

Temperature  of  the  Body 149 

Tendons 57 

Terra  alba 72 

Thigh-bones,  The....'.  49 

Thought 180 

Throat 95 

Tight-lacing 115,  116 

Tissues,  The      41 

Tobacco  31 

"    and  Alcohol 95 

"    Cost  of 34 

"    Effect  on  Boues  of 55 

Growth  of..  .  .    33 


INDEX. 


207 


PAGE 

Tobacco,  Effect  on  Heart 139 

"    Mouth 94 

"  "    Nervous  System.  189 

"  "    Sight 201 

"  "    Stomach 103 

Tongue,  The 193 

Tooth-ache,  The 91 

Touch,  Sense  of 142,  175 

Trachea  Ill 

Training 191 

Trunk,  The 46 


Valves  of  Heart  and  Veins....  132 

Veins 127 

Ventilation 117,  119 


PAGE 

Ventricles 128 

Vertebrae ...    46 

Vinegar 15,23 

Vinous  Fermentation 16 

Vocal  Chords Ilk. 

W 

Walking 53,    54 

Water 67 

Windpipe Ill 

Wine  . 9,  11 

Woolen 151 

Wounds...  ..  135 


Yeast 


16 


THE  NATIONAL    SERIES  OF  SJANDARD   SCHOOL-BOtinS. 

DR.  STEELE'S  ONE-TERM  SERIES, 
IN  ALL  THE  SCIENCES. 

Steele's  i4-Weeks  Course  in  Chemistry. 
Steele's  i4-Weeks  Course  in  Astronomy. 
Steele's  14- Weeks  Course  in  Physics. 
Steele's  i4-Weeks  Course  in  Geology. 
Steele's  i4-Weeks  Course  in  Physiology. 
Steele's  i4-Weeks  Course  in  Zoology. 
Steele's  14-Weeks  Course  in  Botany. 

Our  text-books  in  these  studies  are,  as  a  general  thing,  dull  and  uninteresting. 
They  contain  from  40u  to  GOO  pages  of  dry  facts  and  unconnected  details.  .  They  abound 
in  that  which  the  student  cannot  learn,  much  less  remember.  The  pupil  commences 
the  study,  is  confused  by  the  tine  print  and  coarse  print,  and  neither  knowing  exactly 
what  to  learn  nor  what  to  hasten  over,  is  crowded  through  the  single  term  generally 
assigned  to  each  bran-h,  and  frequently  conies  to  the  close  without  a  definite  and  exact 
idea  of  a  single  scientific  principle. 

Steele's  "  Fourteen.  Weeks  Courses  "  contain  only  that  which  every  well-informed  per- 
son should  know,  while  all  that  which  concerns  only  the  professional  scientist  is  omitted. 
The  language  is  clear,  simple,  and  interesting,  and  the  illustrations  bring  the  subject 
within  the  range  of  home  life  and  daily  experience.  They  give  such  of  the  general 
principles  and  the  prominent  tacts  as  a  pupil  can  make  familiar  as  household  words 
within  a  single  term.  The  type  is  large  and  open;  there  is  no  fine  print  to  annoy ; 
the  cuts  are  copies  of  genuine  experiments  or  natural  phenomena,  and  are  of  fine 
execution. 

In  fine,  by  a  system  of  condensation  peculiarly  his  own,  the  author  reduces  each 
branch  to  tlie  limits  of  a  single  term  of  study,  while  sacrificing  nothing  that  is  essential, 
and  nothing  that  is  usually  retained  from  the  study  of  the  larger  manuals  in  common 
use.  Thus  the  student  has  rare  opportunity  to  ecunomlzt  his  time,  or  rather  to  employ 
that  which  he  has  to  the  best  advantage. 

A  notable  feature  is  the  author's  charming  "style,"  fortified  by  an  enthusiasm  over 
his  subject  in  which  the  student  will  not  fail  to  partake.  Believing  that  Natural 
Science  is  full  of  fascination,  he  has  moulded  it  into  a  form  that  attracts  the  attention 
and  kindles  the  enthusiasm  of  the  pupil. 

The  recent  editions  contain  the  author's  "  Practical  Questions  "  on  a  plan  never 
before  attempted  in  scientific  text-books.  These  are  questions  as  to  the  nature  and 
cause  of  common  phenomena,  and  are  not  directly  answered  in  the  text,  the  design 
being  to  test  and  promote  an  intelligent  use  of  the  student's  knowledge  of  the  foregoing 
principles. 

Steele's  Key  to  all  His  Works. 

This  work  is  mainly  composed  of  answers  to  the  Practical  Questions,  and  solutions  of  (he 
problems,  in  the  author's  celebrated  "  Fourieen-Weeks  Courses  "  in  the  several  sciences, 
with  many  hints  to  teachers,  minor  tables,  &c.  Should  be  on  every  teacher's  desk. 

Prof.  J.  Dorman  Steele  is  an  indefatigable  student,  as  well  as  author,  and  his  books 
have  reached  a  fabulous  circulation.  It  is  safe  to  say  of  his  books  that  they  have 
accomplished  more  tangible  and  better  results  in  the  class-room  than  any  other  ever 
offered  to  American  schools,  and  have  been  translated  into  more  languages  for  Uu-ei^n 
schools.  They  are  even  produced  in  raised  type  for  the  blind. 


THE  NATIONAL   SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 


MODERN     LANGUAGES. 


A    COMPLETE    COURSE    IN     THE    GERMAN. 

By  James  H.  Worman,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Modern  Languages. 

Worman's  First  German   Book. 
Worman's  Second  German  Book. 
Worman's   Elementary   German  Grammar. 
Worman's   Complete   German   Grammar. 

These  volumes  are  designed  for  intermediate  and  advanced  classes  respectively. 

Though  following  the  same  general  method  with  "  Otto  "  (that  of  •'  Gaspey  *'),  our 
author  differs  essentially  in  its  application.  He  is  more  practical,  more  systematic 
more  accurate,  and  besides  introduces  a  number  of  invaluable  features  which  have 
never  before  been  combined  in  a  German  grammar. 

Among  other  things,  it  may  be  claimed  for  Professor  Wonnan  that  he  has  been  tht 
first  to  introduce,  in  an  American  text-book  lor  learning  German,  a  system  of  analogy  and 
comparison  with  other  languages.  Our  best  teachers  are  also  enihusiastic  about  his 
methods  of  inculcating  the  art  of  speaking,  of  understanding  the  spoken  language,  of 
correct  pronunciation  ;  the  sensible  and  convenient  original  classification  of  nouns  (in 
four  declensions),  and  of  irregular  verbs,  also  deserves  much  praise.  We  also  note  the 
use  of  heavy  type  to  indicate  etymological  changes  in  the  paradigms  and,  in  the  exer- 
cises, the  parts  which  specially  illustrate  preceding  rules. 

Worman's  Elementary  German   Reader. 
Worman's   Collegiate  German   Reader. 

The  finest  and  most  judicious  compilation  of  classical  and  standard  German  literature. 
These  works  embrace,  progressively  arranged,  selection*  from  the  masterpieces  of 
Goethe,  Schiller,  Korner,  Seume,  Uhland,  Freiligrath,  Heine,  Schlegel,  Holty,  Lenau, 
Wieland,  Herder,  Lessing,  Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  Winkelmann,  Humboldt,  Ranke, 
Raumer,  Menzel,  Gervinus,  &c.,  and  contain  complete  Goethe's  "  Iphigenie,"  Schiller's 
"Jungfrau;"  also,  for  instruction  in  modern  conversational  German,  Benedix's 
"  Eigensinn." 

There  are,  besides,  biographical  sketches  of  each  author  contributing,  notes,  explan- 
atory and  philological  (after  the  text),  grammatical  re  erences  to  all  leading  grammars, 
as  well  as  the  editor's  own,  ind  an  adequate  Vocabulary. 

Worman's  German  Echo. 

Worman's  German   Copy-Books,  3  Numbers. 

On  the  same  plan  as  the  most  approved  systems  for  English  penmanship,  with 
progressive  copies. 

CHAUTAUQUA     SERIES. 
First  and  Second  Books  in  German. 

By  the  natural  or  Pestalozzian  System,  for  teaching  the  language  without  the  help 
of  the  Learner's  Vernacular.  By  James  H.  Worman,  A.  M. 

These  books  belong  to  the  new  Ohautauqua  German  Language  Series,  and  are  in- 
tended for  beginners  learning  to  speak  German.  The  peculiar  features  of  its  methoii 
are :  — 

1.  It  teaches  the  language  by  direct  appeal  to  illustrations  of  the  objects 
referred  to,  and  does  not  allow  the  stude7it  to  guess  what  is  said.     He  speaks  from  the 
fir.st  hour  understandimjlu  and  accurately.     Therefore, 

2.  Grammar  is  taught  both   analytically  and  synthetically  throughout  tht 
course.    The  beginning  is  made  with  tlie  auxiliaries  of  tense  and  mood,  because  their 
kinship  with  the  English  makes  them  easily  intelligible  ;  then  follow  the  declensions  of 
nouns,  articles,  and  other  parts  of  speech,  always  systematically  arranged.     It  is  easy 
to  confuse  the  pupil  by  giving  him  one  person  or  one  case  at  a  time.    This  pernicious 
practice  is  discarded.     Books  that  beget  unsystematic  habits  of  thought  are  worse  than 
wortMess. 


THE  NATIONAL  SERIES  OF  STANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS. 
NATU  RAL  SCIENCE  —  Continued. 

TEMPERANCE    PHYSIOLOGY. 

Steele's  Abridged  Physiology,  for  Common  Schools. 
Steele's  Hygienic  Physiology,   for  High  Schools. 

With  especial  reference  to  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics.  Adapted  from  "  Fourteen 
/Veeks'  Course  in  Human  Physiology."  By  J.  Ltorman  S.eele,  Pli.U.  Edited  and 
indorsed  for  the  use  of  schools  (in  accordance  with  the  recent  legislation  upon  this 
mbject)  l»y  the  Department  of  Temperance  Instruction  of  the  \V.  C.  i'  U.  of  the  Un.ted 
States,  uader  the  direction  of  Mrs.  Mary  H.  Hunt,  superintendent. 

This  new  work  contains  all  the  excellent  and  popular  features  that  have  given  Dr. 
Steele's  Physiology  so  wide  a  circulation.  Among  these,  are  the  following: 

1.  Colored  Lithographs  to  illustrate  the  general  facts  in  Physiology. 

2.  Black-board   Analysis  at  the  beginning  of  each  chapter.     These  have  been 
found  of  ^reat  service  in  (lass-work,  especially  in  review  and  examination. 

3.  Tlie  Practical  Questions  at  the  close  of  each  chapter.     These  are  now  too  well 
known  to  require  any  explanation. 

4.  The  carefully  prepared  sections  upon  the  Physiological   Action   of   Alcohol, 
Tobacco,  Opium,  etc.    These  are  scattered  throiigii  the  book  as  each  organ  is  treated. 
This  subject  is  examined  from  a  purely  scientific  stand-point,  and  represents  the  latest 
teachings  at  home  and  abroad.     While  there,  is  no  attempt  to  incorporate  a  temperance 
lecture  in  a  school-book,  yet  the  terrible  effects  of  these  "  Stimulants  and  Narcotics," 
especially  upon  the  young,  are  set  forth  all  the  more  impressively,  since  the  lesson  is 
taught  merely  by  the  presentation  of  facts  that  lean  toward  no  one's  prejudices,  and 
admit  of  no  answer  or  escape. 

5.  Throughout  the  book,  there  are  given,  in  text  and  foot-note,  experiments  that  can 
be  performed  by  teacher  and  pupil,  and  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  induce  some  easy  dis- 
sections to  be  made  in  every  class,  and  lead  to  that  constant  reference  of  all  subjects  to 
Nature  herself,  which  is  so  invaluable  in  scientific  study. 

6.  The  collection  of  recent  discoveries,  interesting  facts,  etc.,  in  numerous  foot- 
notes. 

7.  The  unusual  space  given  to  the  subject  of  Ventilation,  which  is  now  attracting 
so  much  attention  throughout  the  country. 

8.  The  text  is  brought  up  to  the  level  of  the  new  Physiological  views.     The  division 
into  short,  pithy  paragraphs  ;  the  bold  paragraph  headings  ;  the  clear,  large  type  ;  the 
simple  presentation  of  each  subject ;  the  interesting  style  that  begets  in  every  child  a 
love  of  the  study,  and  the  beautiful  cuts,  each  having  a  full  scientific  description  and 
nomenclature,  so  as  to  present  the  thing  before  the  pupil  without  cumbering  the  text 
with  the  dry  details,  —  all  these  indicate  the  work  of  the  practical  teacher,  and  will  be 
appreciated  in  every  school-room. 

Child's  Health  Primer. 

For  the  youngest  scholars.     12mo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

Hygiene  for  Young  People. 

Prepared  under  the  supervision  of  Mrs.  Mary  H  Hunt,  Superintendent  of  the 
Department  of  Scientific  Instruction  of  the  "  Women's  National  Christian  Temperance 
Union."  Examined  and  approved  by  A.  B.  Palmer,  M.D.,  University  of  Michigan. 

Jarvis's  Elements  of  Physiology. 
Jarvis's  Physiology  and  Laws  of  Health. 

The  only  books  extant  which  approach  this  subject  with  a  proper  view  of  the  true 
object  of  teaching  Physiology  in  schools,  viz. ,  that  scholars  may  know  how  to  take  care 
of  their  own  health.  In  bold  contrast  with  the  abstract  Anatomies,  which  children 
learn  as  they  would  Greek  or  Latin  (and  forget  as  soon),  to  discipline  the  mind,  are  these 
text-books,  using  the  science  as  a  secondary  consideration,  and  only  so  far  as  is 
sary  fot  the  comprehension  of  the  laws  of  health. 


AN    APPEAL 

FROM  THR 

APPLES,  GRAPES,  RYE,  AND  HOPS, 

BY 

MRS.  ELIZABETH  POWELL  BOND. 


CHARACTERS : 
JOHN,  MARY,  ALICE,  HARRY. 

John  [with  a  basket  of  apples  in  his  hand"\.—^^ 
come  before  ye*.:  :r.  bcha?.£  of  these  rr.ulc  lliliiga,  lo 
protest  against  the  harmful  use  to  which  they  are 
put.  Could  these  apples  speak  to  you,  I  fancy  they 
would  say  :  "All  this  beautiful  summer,  through  the 
months  of  sun  and  shower,  our  mother  tree  has  been 
as  busy  as  busy  could  be,  with  her  myriad  leaves 
and  countless  rootlets,  taking  in  stimulus  from  the 
air,  and  nourishment  from  the  earth,  until  she  has 
moulded  us  into  these  fair  apples.  The  sunbeams 
have  been  our  artists,  and  have  given  us  these  bright 
colors,  and  they  have  been  the  mysterious  chemists 
that  have  made  our  juices  sparkling  and  health-giv- 
ing. We  pray  you  send  us  not  to  the  cruel  mill  to 
be  crushed  betw.een  the  upper  and  nether  millstones, 
to  have  our  juices  changed  to  harmful  drinks.  Let 
us  stay  by  your  pleasant  firesides,  to  grace  your  ta- 
bles with  our  beauty,  to  delight  your  eager  children, 
to  give  health  and  vigor  to  your  blood." 


2  AN  APPEAL 

Mary  [with  a  basket  of  grapes]. — Let  me  be  a 
voice  for  these  grapes,  that  the  poets  have  loved  to 
sing  about  as  the  store-houses  of  the  golden  sun* 
shine.  Mother  'Nature  has  given  them  not  only 
beauty,  but  the  most  delicate  flavors,  and  they  love 
to  minister  to  the  good  and  the  comfort  of  man. 
They  would  witness  with  dismay  the  drunken  revels 
of  gay  young  men,  the  gradual  ruin  of  fair  young 
girls,  the  misery  wrought  by  the  wine  when  it  is  red. 
They  would  plead  with  you  to  let  them  be  the  beau- 
tiful grapes  to  cheer,  rather  than  the  red,  dangerous 
wine  to  inebriate. 

Alice  [with  a  cluster  of  hops']. — Let  me  plead  for 
these  graceful  creatures,  that  fall  victims  to  the  brew- 
er's devices,  and  are  made  instrumental  in  the  ruin 
of  men.  In  their  growth  they  are  led  by  the  sun- 
shine, climbing  onward  and  upward  till  they  have 
reached  their  limit  of  perfection,  when  they,  like  all 
growing  things,  are  ready  for  the  service  of  man. 
Their  crmrefnl  crrowth,  their  clustering  blossoms* 
please  his  sense  of  beauty,  and  in  these  blossoms, 
Mother  Nature  has  hidden  a  power  to  minister  to 
his  tired,  excited  nerves,  and  bring  their  restorer, 
sleep.  They  plead  with  you  to  save  them  for  their 
beneficent  service. 

Harry  [with  a  handful  of  grain], — Had  this  food- 
ful  grain  a  human  tongue,  it  would  earnestly  protest 
against  the  wastefulness  that  perverts  it  from  its  God- 
appointed  purpose.  In  its  neat  little  kernels  are 
stored  up  the  very  properties  that  go  to  build  up 
our  constantly  wasting  bodies.  There  are  lime  and 
phosphorus  for  our  bones,  there  are  starch  and  sugar 
for  our  blood,  in  these  ti^y  parcels  of  food.  And  y**f, 
while  there  are  children  crying  for  bread,  thoughtless 
and  selfish  men  take  this  foodful  grain  and  pervert 
it  into  the  baneful  whisky  that  weakens  the  nerves 
and  muscles  and  wills  of  their  fellows,  and,  instead 
of  promoting  life,  spreads  broadcast  the  seeds  of 
death.  Oh,  it  is  a  shameful  thing  thus  to  pervert 
one  of  God's  best  gifts  into  one  of  man's  most  dan- 
gerous enemies. 


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